Vasco Nunez de Balboa

Vasco Nunez de Balboa deserves to be one of the most famous explorers of all time, and should rank alongside Columbus, Vasco de Gama or Magellan at the peak of the profession. Sadly overlooked when compared with his peers, Balboa was more than just an explorer, as at various times in his life he was a conquistador and governor.

Not much is known about Balboa’s childhood. He was born in about 1475 in Jerez de los Caballeros in Spain. Descended from a family line from Badajoz, his father, Nuno Arias de Balboa was only a minor nobleman, with neither money nor influence. The third of four sons, noble blood though did allow Vasco to gain a position as a squire in the house of Don Pedro de Portocarrero, Lord of Moguer.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa claims the South Sea - Unknown - PD-life-70

Don Pedro de Portocarrero’s possession around the south-west coast of Spain, brought Balboa into contact with many sailors. These men would claim that the New World could bring fame and fortune to those brave enough to sail the seas. There were many expeditions arranged to travel to the new world, and one of these was under the captaincy of Rodrigo de Bastidas. De Bastidas had gained a license to bring back treasure from the Americas. Balboa, along with his friend Juan de la Cosa, managed to gain a place on this expedition.

The year 1501 saw the expedition exploring the Caribbean coasts, from Panama and along the Colombian coast. Though realising that they were short of men they sailed to Hispaniola (the island of Haiti and Dominican Republic). The finds made on the expedition, as well as goods traded in Hispaniola, ensured that Balboa was comfortably off. Balboa invested his new funds into a plantation and pig farm, although neither proved to be a successful venture and following several years of high living, Balboa found himself deep in debt.

In 1502, to escape his debtors, Balboa stowed away on an expedition to restock and support the new settlement of San Sebastian de Uraba in Nueva Andalucia (roughly near the Honduras and Nicaragua border). Balboa was discovered by the expedition leader, Fernandez de Enciso, who decided to make use of Balboa’s knowledge of the area.

Balboa soon became a popular member of the crew, as opposed to the disliked expedition leader. Arriving in San Sebastian the expedition found the new city in ruins, following a series of attacks by the natives. Balboa convinced the remaining settlers and expedition crew that a new city could be founded on the Isthmus of Panama near Darien. On arrival though they found the natives waiting for them, a battle ensued with Cemaco and 500 of his warriors. Luck was on the side of the Spanish who were victorious. Thus a new settlement of Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien was founded in September 1510.

Balboa declared himself interim governor of Santa Maria, usurping Enciso’s power. With the support of the settlers, Balboa also managed to stop de Nicuesa, the true governor of the region, from taking control. Balboa also arrested Enciso and sent him back to Spain.

Quarrel for the Gold - Ober, Frederick A. - PD US

Under Balboa’s leadership Santa Maria prospered, the city planted crops and received fresh supplies from Hispaniola and Spain. Balboa also managed to acquire a small fortune in gold. Balboa also took on board the conquistador mentality. Balboa travelled to neighbouring regions subduing and/or befriending the local tribes. One of these lands belonged to the Comagre, Comagre welcomed Balboa and was baptised.

It was in the land of Comagre that Balboa was made aware of another sea, where gold was plentiful. Tales were told of a kingdom where everything was made of gold. Knowing that his position as governor of Santa Maria was tenuous and that he could be replaced at any moment, Balboa sought favour with King Ferdinand the Catholic’ of Spain.

In September 1513 Balboa led an expedition from Santa Maria, taking with him 190 Spanish soldiers and 1000 friendly natives. Faced with dense forest and hostile tribes, Balboa’s force made their way across the Isthmus of Panama. A depleted force eventually found themselves in the mountain range along the Chucunaque River. From the peak of one of the mountains, balboa spotted the new ocean, named the South Sea, on 25th September 1513. A wooden cross and pyramids were erected on the site where the ocean was first seen.

Descending from the mountains, the expedition still had to fight their way to the coast. The expedition split into three groups, the group led by Alonso Martin was the first to reach the coast on the 27th September. Martin returned to Balboa, who with 26 men marched back to the coast. On arrival Balboa waded into the ocean, at San Miguel, with a sword in one hand and a Virgin Mary icon in the other. This was the 29th September.

The other main aim of the expedition has been the amassing of wealth. Balboa’s forces took gold and pearl from the conquered natives, including those from an island group, that included Isla Rica. In November Balboa decided to make a return to Santa Maria, although he took a different route back it still required pitch battles against more hostile natives.

Balboa finally arrived back in Santa Maria on the 19th January, 1514. Balboa proclaimed the discovery of the South Sea, which he had taken possession of on behalf of Spain. In addition Balboa was a wealthy man, he returned with a treasure in cotton goods, quantities of pearls and a fortune in gold. Four fifths of the treasure was kept by Balboa, whilst the rest was returned to Spain and King Ferdinand.

On Balboa’s return to Santa Maria, he found that Pedro Arias de Avila (also known as Pedrarias) had been appointed as governor by the king. Balboa accepted the king’s appointment, although Balboa was forced to pay reparations to Enciso. The new governor ordered further expeditions for treasures and new settlement locations. Balboa was wounded in an expedition to the Dabaibe region, although this in no way put him off a desire to return to the South Seas.

This desire put him in the bad books of Pedrarias, who feared that Balboa was trying to usurp his position, Balboa being far more popular with the settlers than Pedrarias. Pedrarias had Balboa arrested, and threatened to lock him up in a wooden cage.

Balboa was saved from this ignominy though by recognition from the Spanish Crown for his discovery of the South Seas. Pedrarias was ordered to show Balboa the greatest respect, and place him as planner of all conquests and expeditions in the region

The animosity between Balboa and Pedrarias seemed to be at end when a marriage was arranged between Balboa and Pedrarias’ daughter, Maria de Penalosa. Balboa though had a desire to continue to explore the South Seas, and in 1517 he departed to Acla with 300 men to build four new ships for further exploration. Balboa though was summoned by Pedrarias to an urgent meeting in Santa Maria in 1518.

Balboa made his way to Santa Maria but before he arrived he was arrested and charged with an attempt to set up a rival government to that of his father-in-law. The trial was swift, under the guidance of Pedrarias and Enciso. Commenced in January 1519, a guilty verdict was returned on Balboa and four of his friends; Fernando de Argello, Luis Botello, Hernn Muoz, and Andrs Valderrbano, by the fifteenth of the same month.

All of the accused were sentenced to beheading, to be undertaken in Acla. The sentence was carried out on the 21st January, 1519, and as Pedrarias watched, Balboa was decapitated with an axe. Stories tell of it taking three attempts by the executioner to remove Balboa’s head, the whereabouts of his remains are unknown and as such makes it difficult to confirm this story.

Balboa’s discovery of the South Seas has been proclaimed second only too Columbus’ discovery by historians. His legacy still continues to this day, his colony of Darien still exists today, making it the oldest existing European settlement in mainland America. Balboa was a great explorer and popular with settlers, his achievements and popularity though made others jealous and wary of him that eventually led to his death.

Copyright - First Published 19th March 2008

Biography of Abraham Maslow

Abraham Maslow was a famous psychologist who’s work on humanistic psychology has seen his fame spread to many humanity subjects like geography and demographics. He is primarily famous for his Hierarchy of Needs’.

Abraham Harold Maslow was born on the 1st April 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. Maslow was the eldest of seven children born to Russian Jewish immigrants. Relatively uneducated themselves they saw learning as the key to their children succeeding in their new homeland. As such all of their children were encouraged to study; Abraham their oldest child was pushed especially hard as he was recognised as an intellectual at a young age.

Maslow himself felt that his childhood was relatively unhappy, alone in a strange neighbourhood he took refuge in studying and his books. Maslow spent all of his childhood in Brooklyn.

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs - J. Finkelstein - CC-BY-SA-3.0

At school Maslow was a scholarly pupil, and succeeded in gaining a place at the City College of New York. Maslow initially studied law to satisfy his parents’ wishes, but he attended graduate school at Wisconsin University. At Wisconsin he changed his subject to psychology, receiving a BA in 1930, an MA in 1931 and a Ph.D in 1934. At Wisconsin he was mentored by Harry Harlow, a psychologist famed for his work on rhesus monkeys and behaviour. Maslow developed this looking at primate’s dominance behaviour and sexuality.

During his period of study at Wisconsin, Maslow married his cousin, Bertha Goodman, with whom Maslow had two daughters.

Following his Ph.D, Maslow returned to New York in 1935, where he continued his psychology studies at Colombia University. Working with EL Thorndike, Maslow continued to develop his interest on human sexuality.

In 1937 Maslow took up a teaching post at Brooklyn College, where he soon found further mentors in Alfred Adler and Erich Fromm. Adler and Fromm were leading European psychologists. Maslow also learnt from anthropologist Ruth Benedict and Freudian psychologist Max Wertheimer. Maslow though would learn from noting their behaviour.

In 1951 Maslow moved to Brandeis University, a Massachusetts private research university, where took up the chair of the psychology department. This position allowed him to focus more on his theoretical work. At Brandeis Maslow also became friends with Kurt Goldstein, who introduced Maslow to the theory of self-actualisation. Maslow remained at Brandeis until 1969, before a brief stint as a fellow at Laughlin Institute in California.

Maslow’s primary contribution to psychology is the pyramid/ladder of basic needs, evidence suggests that he originally came up with the idea in the 1940s. The pyramid displays that some needs are more powerful than others, ranging from most urgent to the most advanced. The five categories are physiological (sex, sleep, water, food etc), safety (security of body, health, employment etc), belonging/love (friendship, family and sexual intimacy), esteem (confidence, respect of others and by others), and self-actualisation (morality, creativity etc).

The theory though is that unfulfilled needs from the lower segments of the pyramid/ladder would prevent a person climbing into the next level. Those who reached the top of the pyramid were self-actualising people. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs became the accepted notion in the fields of psychology and anthropology, as well as crossing over into other humanity fields.

Maslow did make revisions to his theory and this has meant that other major works Motivation and Personality’ (1954) and Toward a Psychology of Being’ (1962) have been overlooked to a large extent. Maslow was also critical of mainstream psychology for overusing pathology and not looking at the individual, the authentic self’.

In the later years of the 1960s, Maslow went into semi-retirement and began to spend more time at his home in California. Ill health though blighted his semi-retirement and at the age of 62, Maslow died on the 8th June, 1970 from a heart-attack.

Maslow was the leading figure of the humanistic school of psychology, which became the third force’ behind Freudian theory and behaviourism. One major work, the hierarchy of needs, has ensured that generations of psychology and humanity students have discovered the basic needs of each human being.

Copyright - First Published 18th March 2008

The Parthenon in Athens

There are few archaeological sites that are as iconic as the Parthenon in Athens. Situated on the Acropolis the temple of Athena has stood as a symbol for Athens and Greece for almost two and half thousand years.

Athena was the patron god of Athens. In fact she was so revered by the inhabitants of Attica that they named the city after her. The current incarnation of the Parthenon though, was not the first temple built on the site. Evidence shows that the Mycenean priest-kings from 1600BC-1100BC had fortified temples on the site. Even as late as the 6th century BC there is archaeological remains of at least two large temples dedicated to Athena.

Parthenon from the West - Mountain - Released into PD

The first limestone sanctuary construction though didn’t begin until circa 488BC, shortly after the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians levelled of the southern part of the Acropolis summit. Large foundations were constructed from locally sourced limestone, construction though was far from complete when the Persians sacked Athens in 480BC. The Older Parthenon’ was razed to the ground.
Thirty years were to pass before the Athenians were in a position to construct a new temple. There are two commonly given reasons for the delay in construction. Firstly there was an agreement amongst the Greek states that no destroyed sanctuaries would be rebuilt. More importantly though was the cost involved in any construction upon the Acropolis.

In 447BC the Athenian state was almost at the peak of its power. Pericles had made himself the ruler of the city, and as a general his military victories cemented his popularity. Pericles wanted a building project to ensure that the dominance of Athens was recognised. The Acropolis was obviously the best place to show off any building, and so Pericles ordered the construction of the Parthenon, the Propylaia and Erechtheion.

Pericles employed the sculptor Pheidias to supervise the construction of a temple to Athena. The building was to follow the plans of Iktinos and Kallikrates, two prominent architects of the time.
One major stumbling block was the cost of any new construction. Surviving records show that the total cost was 469 silver talents, enough money to keep forty Greek warships afloat for a year. At the time it was estimated that the total annual income for Athens was a thousand talents. A large part of the building cost was spent on the transportation of building material from Mount Pentelicus, ten miles outside of Athens.

Parthenon from South - Thermos - CC-BY-SA-2.5

The problem of cost though was overcome by moving the treasury of the Delian League to the Acropolis, from the Panhellenic Sanctuary at Delos, and then making use of the funds. The Delian League was a collaboration of Greek states, formed to fight the threat of the Persian Empire. The threat from Persia though had reduced by 447BC, and with the signing of a peace treaty in 449BC, Pericles believed that Athens could make better use of the money. Pericles was also confident of Athens’ dominance over their Greek neighbour, so that there would be no complaint.

Construction though as well as money took time, and although the temple was dedicated to the goddess in 438BC it was not until 432BC that construction was completed. Even then it was a further year before all decorations were finished. When completed the building extended to 228 feet long, 101 feet wide and some 34 feet high. There is no evidence of an alter within the temple, and the primary function of the new building appears to be to house a statue of Athena. The statue though was no normal statue, of gigantic proportions it was sculptured by Pheidias. Made from wood, gold and ivory, it was said to stand forty feet tall.

The Parthenon was constructed out of white marble and built in the Doric style. Doric relates to the proportions of the building, with thick and short columns. The Doric style is described as the easiest Greek construction styles, consisting as it does of a stylobate (the base) and fluted column shafts..
Some of the most obvious features are its pillars, forty-six outer ones, including eight on the faade, as well as nineteen inner pillars. These columns extend around the outside of the whole building, whilst inside they help define the interior rooms. There are two main interior rooms, a large naos’ housing the Pheidias statue, and a smaller treasury. The columns and pillars held up a roof in antiquity consisting of large overlapping marble tiles.

Parthenon at Night - Ggia - CC-BY-SA-3.0

Whilst the Parthenon was constructed out of white marble, it was not a plain building. The decorative stone work was original vividly coloured. It is the decorations that set it aside from many other temples of the period. These decorations are divided into the Metopes, Pedimental Sculptures and the Frieze.

There are ninety-two metopes on the Parthenon, each carved in high relief. Each metope displays a battle of good versus evil, either from history or mythology. Carved between 446BC and 440BC, the ones which remain on the temple are badly damaged although the ones on display in various museums, including the British Museum are better preserved.

On the west face, there is a mythical battle by the Athenians against the Amazons. There is some evidence though that the Amazonomachy, may have some basis in real events. The eastern end metopes display the Gigantomachy, the fight between the Olympian gods and the Giants. The north side shows what is believed to be the Trojan war, although these metopes are the least well preserved. The best preserved metopes are on the south and display elements of the Centauromachy. The Centauromachy, was the battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, the Athenian king Theseus was said to have aided the Lapiths.

The metopes were all carved in the Early Classic style, or Sever Style. The style was an attempt by the Greek sculptors to show the human form, and so depictions are more lifelike.

The east and western ends of the Parthenon each have a set of Pedimental relief sculptures. Larger than the metopes, the Pedimentals show elements of Athena’s life.

The eastern pediment shows the story of Athena’s birth from the head of Zeus. To relieve a headache, Zeus had Hephaestus strike him with his hammer. From the wound the goddess Athena appear fully clad in her armour. There is only supposition as to what the full relief would have shown in antiquity, as even by the 17th century the central elements had been destroyed.

The western end depicts the story of how Athena became the patron god of Athens. A contest between Poseidon and Athena had been resolved by each god supplying a gift to the inhabitants of the city. Athena provided an olive tree, whilst Poseidon gave a salt water spring. Gaps in the relief are filled with figures from other Athenian legends.

The pediments were completed after the metopes, from 438BC to 432BC, and as a result show a slightly differing style. Described as classical style, the figures show natural movement and finer detail.

The last relief is the Ionic frieze that runs around the upper edge of the exterior walls. Carved in situ, from 442BC to 438BC, on a narrow band, the band is only three and half feet wide. There is debate about what the frieze actually depicts.

The north, west and south faces show a procession of musicians, horsemen and animals, whilst the east face shows a scene of a child handing an offering to an old man. This procession of people could be a representation of the annual procession to honour Athena. Although some archaeologists argue that the frieze depicts a scene from Greek mythology where Pandora was sacrificed to Athena to save the city of Athens from attack.

As patron god of Athens it is obvious why the great building was dedicated to Athena. The name Parthenon though does raise debate. Parthenon means of the virgin’, although it is not clear whether the virgin relates to the goddess, or to the four girls chosen to serve in the temple each year.
Athens became part of the Roman Empire, as the dominance of Greece in the Mediterranean reduced. The Parthenon remained intact for many centuries, although by the 5th century AD parts of the building had been looted. One of the Roman Emperors had images and sculptures removed to Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. During this period the building was also converted into a Christian church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. This conversion did mean an alteration to the building structure, as an apse was created and some of the internal columns were removed.

The Parthenon remained a church for many hundreds of years until the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in Athens. In 1456 the Parthenon was converted from a church into a mosque. This conversion also altered the appearance of the Parthenon as a minaret, a tower for the call to prayer, was added. The Ottomans though were fairly respectful to the existing structure, and as a result there was no mindless vandalism. Many reports are suggestive that the Parthenon was predominately intact right through until the 17th century.

This position though was to end in 1687. The Venetian Empire was at war with the Ottomans, and in 1687 the Venetian forces attacked Athens. The Ottomans fortified the Acropolis, and stored their armaments and gunpowder in the Parthenon. The Acropolis of course came under attack, and a Venetian mortar managed to ignite the gunpowder in the Parthenon. The resulting explosion partly destroyed the Parthenon, the roof collapse and many of the columns were decapitated. The Venetian forces also looted many of the internal structures. As a result the Parthenon became a shell of its former self.

The independent Greece managed to regain control of Athens in 1832. They were unable to do much with the remains of the once great temple. They removed the Ottoman buildings from the hill, removing the minaret from the Parthenon at the same time. The Parthenon though was a derelict wreck.

In the last quarter of the 20th century, the Greek government set about restoring the Parthenon, and its neighbouring buildings. The restoration is not designed to build the Parthenon back to its ancient image, but to mitigate against the damage caused since the mortar explosion of 1687. Since this date the structure has been further damaged by earthquakes as well as acid rain. This restoration project is not a short-term project and it is not cheap. Whilst funding has been received from the European Union, tourists to the Acropolis are expected to pay a hefty admission fee to view the temple, in order to help fund the ongoing work

Unfortunately you cannot talk about the Parthenon without raising the question of the Elgin Marbles. During the 18th century Athens was still in the hands of the Ottoman Empire, but western Europeans were frequenting it as part of the Grand Tour or for other tourist interests. The Earl of Elgin, the British Ambassador in Constantinople, received permission from the Sultan in 1801 to examine the Parthenon and the Acropolis. Elgin took this permission to mean that sculptures and friezes could be removed from the site. This he did with fervour.

As a result the Marbles arrived at the British Museum, whilst other sculptures turned up at the Louvre, the Copenhagen Museum, and many other European museums. Few were left in Athens, and even fewer on the Parthenon itself. The Greek government has been lobbying the British government to return the Elgin Marbles to Athens, for them to be displayed in a purpose built museum. So far though there has been no compromise, so the Marbles remain on permanent display in the British Museum. Whilst the display is not a complete representation, it does provide an insight into what the Parthenon may have looked like almost two and a half thousand years ago.

The Parthenon has always been commonly known as a temple to Athena. Architecturally speaking then the building is clearly a temple, especially as it contained numerous statues and images dedicated to the goddess. There is no physical evidence that the workings of a temple, the sacrifices and devotions, ever took place within its walls. Some archaeologists and historians now argue, that there is more evidence that the Parthenon only ever operated as a treasury.

No matter its original purpose the Parthenon is certainly one of the iconic symbols of Greece, and of the wider ancient European culture. It is a wonder of an ancient civilisation that should be observed first hand, failing that though take a trip to the British Museum for a feel for how the building may have looked in all its finery.

Copyright - First Published 10th March 2010