Biography of Ching Shih

The Pirates of the Caribbean film trilogy has once again brought forth a new wave of enthusiasm about historical piracy, and once again the likes of Blackbeard and Captain Kidd are romantically viewed figures. Some pirates are still well known, and yet there are countless more whose names have disappeared into the history books, one of these pirates is Ching Shih. Few people will have heard of Ching Shih, hardly surprising as the most famous pirates operated in the Caribbean and off of the Spanish Main, whilst Ching Shih operated in the South China Sea.

The fact that Ching Shih operated in the South China Sea doesn’t belittle the achievement of the pirate, as Ching Shih brought together a fleet more powerful than most nations. Ching Shih indeed became one of the most feared of all pirates, and what is more Ching Shih was a female pirate.
It is of course not unknown for female pirates to prosper in what is seen as a male domain, Anne Bonney and Mary Read where themselves famous and successful. Ching Shih though is unique in the size of her pirate fleet.

Ching Shih - History of the Pirates of all Nations 1836 - PD-life-70

Ching Shih was born, Shih Yang (or Shi Xianggu), in Guangdong, Canton in 1775. Nothing is known about her early life and the first real information that is known about her comes in 1801, mid to late Qing Dynasty, when Shih Yang was known to be one of the prostitutes working on a Cantonese floating brothel. One of the patrons of the brothel was Zheng Yi (or Cheng I), a prominent pirate from a family of pirates. Zheng Yi’s family had been terrorising the Chinese coast since the mid-seventeenth century.

There are conflicting stories about how Zheng Yi came to marry Shih Yang. Zheng Yi was obviously in love with the beautiful prostitute. Some tales say that Shih Yang though was either determined to stay in the brothel, or else she saw piracy as a way out of the brothel. Either way within a year Zheng Yo and Shih Yang was married, and Shih Yang took the name Zheng Yi Sao (or Cheng I Sao), meaning wife of Zheng Yi.

Female pirates were common in Chinese waters, and Zheng Yi and Zheng Yi Sao, soon became a formidable team. Zheng Yi Sao was known to take an equal role with that of her husband in the fighting. Together they managed to bring together a number of ships and pirates under a loose alliance. Zheng Yi and Zheng Yi Sao took their growing fleet to Annam (current day Vietnam) to fight in the Tay-Son rebellion. The couple’s time in the Vietnamese waters was short-lived as their side was defeated in 1802.

Zheng Yi and Zheng Yi Sao returned to Cantonese waters, and started to build up their pirating force. The Red Flag Fleet was born, as the Zheng’s joined forces with Wu Shi’er, another pirate. The Zheng’s brought 200 junks and other ships into the fleet, and using force and the promise of riches, brought all the other local pirates in the Cantonese Pirate Coalition. A force of 600 ships was soon conducting their piracy business all along the South China Sea coast, as far south as Malaysia.
By 1807 the Red Flag Fleet had grown to 1,500 vessels although this included many smaller fishing and river boats. There were an estimated 70,000 pirates operating under the Zheng’s flags. On the 16th November 1807, Zheng Yi died during a severe gale.

It was normal in Chinese society for a widow to withdraw from her husband’s business; piracy though was not a normal business. Zheng Yi Sao took over from her husband. As a widow, Zheng Yi Sao took on the name Ching Shih (or Zheng Shi) meaning widow of Zheng. Ching Shih had bigger things on her mind than traditional piracy, and she went about organising the Red Flag Fleet into a business.

Ching Shih left the naval operations of the fleet to her second-in-command, Zhang Pao, as Captain of the Fleet. Zhang Pao had previously been Zheng’s deputy, as well as adopted son. Zhang Pao had been kidnapped at the age of 15 from his fishing village, but Zhang Pao soon won his place in the fleet as he became known as an intelligent leader and extremely brave when faced with danger. Zhang Pao would become a lover and husband to Ching Shih.

Ching Shih ensured that as ruler, that she gained from any venture. Any pirate within the fleet would have to have a piracy expedition agreed by Ching Shih. Ching Shih would then take the entire haul, and then pay the pirate a fee based on the haul. Ching Shih would have her own purser determine the worth of any haul.

The Red Flag Fleet expanded from piracy on the high seas. The shallow hulled ships of the fleet would travel up rivers to extort money from villages, often demanding the payment of taxes as well as protection money. The most profitable exploits though came about with the extortion of money from local salt merchants. Every ship departing from Canton ports would have to pay a protection fee, which freed them from any threat of attack.

The success of the fleet ensured that Ching Shih could pay for an extensive spy network throughout Canton. The Red Flag Fleet also had financial offices in every major port along the coast of the South China Sea. All in all Ching Shih controlled the whole economy of Guangdong province.

Keeping 70,000 pirates in check was no easy matter, and so Ching Shih instigated a series of rules which all of her fleet were expected to abide by. Discipline was expected and any flouting of the rules was harshly dealt with, normally with beheading. Beheading could be given out if any rules were disobeyed. It was also the punishment for taking money from the loot haul, taking shore leave without permission or raping women unless permission had been given by the squadron leader. Deserters from the fleet, if caught would have their ears removed.

The most famous of Ching Shih’s rules were all about women captives. Any ugly women were promptly set free, whilst the most beautiful were purchased by a member of the pirate crew. Once purchased the pirate and woman were said to be a married couple. If any pirate cheated on his wife he was said to have contravened Ching Shih’s rules and would be decapitated.

With a whole navy behind her, Ching Shih was able to command the whole South China Sea. Ching Shih and Zhang Pao brought together hundreds of ships whenever there was a threat of an engagement. The Chinese government did allow piracy to go on without attempting to stop it. Every attempt at physically stopping the Red Flag Fleet ended in disaster.

In January 1808 the Chinese government sent their navy into the waters of Kwangtung. The ensuing battle though ended in defeat, as instead of depriving Ching Shih of her navy only added 60 government ships to her fleet. There were other attempts by the Chinese navy, and Portuguese and British privateers to stop the navy, without success. The Chinese government even asked the British East India Company to send the British navy to their aide. This request though was turned down, as the British Navy was occupied in blockading France and Spain at the time.

In 1810 Ching Shih brought about an end to her piracy career. Ching Shih was faced with problems of keeping the Red Flag Fleet together; cracks were appearing in the coalition. One of her squadron leaders, O-po-tae, fought an open battle with Zhang Poa’s squadron of ships. Realising that it would be almost impossible to keep 80,000 pirates happy for ever, Ching Shih took up the chance of a government amnesty.

The Chinese government were looking for peace and so a meeting was arranged between Ching Shih and a local official. Ching Shih was in a prime position and in return for the surrender of all of her direct 226 vessels and 17,318 men, Ching Shih arranged many benefits. Out of all of her men only 126 were executed for their crimes and only 250 more received any other sort of punishment. All other pirates were pardoned and offered roles within the Chinese military.

Zhang Pao was given a role as a lieutenant in the Chinese army, and allowed to keep 20 of his finest vessels. Zhang Pao was also given money to ensure that pirates were settled in mainland towns, and would never take up their former career.

Ching Shih also negotiated a rank for herself, against Chinese laws, and she was also allowed to keep all of the loot she had gained. With all of her acquired wealth still intact, Ching Shih retired from the piracy business. With Zhang Pao at her side, she established a brothel and gambling house in Guangzhou, Canton. It was a quite life compared with her previous existence, and with her husband she had at least one son. Ching Shih passed away peacefully in 1844, a grandmother and aged 69. How many other pirates managed such a peaceful end to their lives?

Ching Shih’s life is a remarkable tale of a woman succeeding in a man’s world, becoming so powerful that she could negotiate a deal in her favour with a country’s government. It is a pirate tale that deserves to be mentioned alongside the most famous of privateers, from Blackbeard or Jean Lafitte.

Biography of Ernst Udet

Ernst Udet was one of the German flying Aces’ of World War I, unlike many of his contemporaries though he survived the fighting on the Western Front.

Udet was born in Frankfurt am Main on the 26th April 1896. There are conflicting stories about his childhood. Some sources say Udet’s father was violent, especially with his son, who was not the tall strong son he waned. Other sources say his father and mother, Paula, were loving parents providing their son with gifts as he wished for them.

His schooldays were nothing special, and academically he showed that he possessed a quick and agile mind. He did though lack the eye for detail and became frustrated with routine and the discipline of school. It was during this time that he first became fascinated with flying. Firstly he and his friends constructed model planes, but they soon found themselves hanging around at the Otto Flying Machine Works. There they got to talk to pilots and observe as planes were constructed. One of the pilots even allowed him to accompany him on a test flight in 1913.

Generaloberst Ernst Udet - Wikimedia

Any dreams that Udet may have had of being a pilot though were temporarily halted with the outbreak of the First World War. On the 2nd August 1914, at just over 18 years of age, Udet attempted to enlist in the German Army. At 5ft 4in tall (160cm) Udet found that he was too short and was turned away by the recruiters.

Still wishing to do his part Udet immediately turned to the role of dispatch writer. The German Automobile Club were asking volunteers to join up, if they could provide their own motorcycles. Udet was in the lucky position of owning a motorcycle, a gift from his parents following a school examination. Udet was immediately posted to the 26th Wrttembergischen Reserve Division, along with several of his friends. Being a messenger was a dangerous role, often requiring Udet to right up to the front line. Udet was in fact injured when his motorcycle hit a shell hole. Whilst recovering in hospital the army decided to end the volunteer system of dispatch riders, and thus once again Udet was without a role to play in the fighting.

Udet attempted to get into the German Air Force, he was will to take any role, from mechanic, to observer, to pilot. He was though turned down as every application. Though he did discover that if he were already a trained pilot he could immediately become a pilot in the Air Force. Udet returned to the Otto Flying Machine Works; there he paid Gustav Otto, 2,000 marks to teach him how to fly. Udet was a natural pilot an in April 1915 he had obtained his civilian pilot’s license.

Joining the German Air Force, Udet met success and dismal failure. Udet became a pilot in an observation unit, flying with an observer to range in artillery attacks. Early on he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class for returning from a sortie despite losing the use of one wing. Success though was quickly followed by failure, when Udet was court-martialled for losing his aircraft through his bad judgement.

Albatros D.Va of Ernst Udet, Jasta 37 - B. Huber - CC-BY-SA-3.0

The punishment was fairly minor though, as Udet was placed in the guardhouse for seven days. Before he could take his punishment though, he was asked to undertake another flight to observe a bombing raid. His observer made a mistake when throwing a bomb from their plane. The bomb became jammed in the landing gear of their aircraft, and to shift it Udet was forced to perform the aerobatics. This action prevented him going to the guardhouse and also saw him transferred to fighter command.

In 1916 Udet found himself stationed at Habsheim, flying Fokker D-IIIs. Initially he found it difficult to kill the enemy pilots, although this soon changed when he himself was wounded when a bullet grazed his cheek. On the 18th March 1916 Udet scored his first kill’ as he dived a French formation of 22 aircraft alone. Several more kills followed.

In the latter part of 1916, Udet transferred to Jasta 15. Jasta was the equivalent of the allied flying squadrons. During his time as Jasta 15, Udet claimed five more kills. He was though also fortunate. He had a duel at 5,000 metres, with the French ace, Georges Guynemar. Guynemar flew away from the dogfight though when he saw that Udet’s guns had jammed and was unable to return fire. Such was the chivalry found in the war in the sky.

Udet was forced to move from Jasta 15 to Jasta 17 in June 1917 when the war took its toil. Udet found that he and his commander were the only two pilots left from the whole of Jasta 15. By November 1917 Udet was famed as a triple ace, with fifteen confirmed kills, and was promoted to Jastafuhrer (Squadron commander) at Jasta 37.

As a triple ace, Udet came to the attention of the Red Baron Manfred von Richthofen who invited him to join his Flying Circus’. Udet was given the command of his own Jasta, Jasta 11. Richthofen demanded total loyalty, and Udet was more than willing to give it. A friendship grew between the two, with Udet holding the Baron in total respect. As a member of the Circus, Udet’s victories continued to rise.

Richthofen died in April 1918, whilst Udet was on sick leave, with an infected ear. Leadership of the Flying Circus eventually fell to Herman Gring, a man who would play a role in the future of Germany and Udet. Whilst on leave he fell in love with an old sweetheart, Eleanor “Lo” Zink, from then on he would fly with LO marked on his plane’s fuselage

Despite not having fully recovered from the ear infection, Udet returned to the front line and took command of Jasta 4 in May 1918. The death of his friend and mentor had a profound effect on Udet and in August 1918 alone, Udet claimed a further 20 kills.

The last few months of the war were not without incident though. In June 1918 Udet survived a crash with a French plane. Forced to bail out Udet would become one of the first pilots to use a parachute successfully. Although it came close to failure when the parachute didn’t open until he was only 250 feet above the ground, the resulting impact also caused him to sprain his ankle. Udet was also wounded in September 1918 when a bullet hit him in the thigh.

Udet survived to the end of the First World War, ending up with a confirmed 62 kills. This made him the second highest German ace of the war, behind Manfred von Richthofen, and also the fourth highest overall.

In post-war Germany, there wasn’t much for a war hero to do. Germany had no airforce so Udet joined a travelling show performing stunts for the viewing public. The show travelled all over the world, and Udet even performed in the United States. His lifestyle though soon saw him pigeonholed as a playboy, a regular on the party scene he would entertain other guests with feats of juggling and other party entertainment.

Udet also flew in movies, even appearing with Leni Riefenstahl in SOS Eisberg’, Die weie Hlle vom Piz Pal’, and Strme ber dem Montblanc’. These appearances proved to be good publicity, and Udet was soon invited to start manufacturing aircraft. Udet was interested in building places for the general public, although this was short-lived as the company moved away to more exclusive airplanes.
Udet was known as a playboy with numerous lovers. This was the primary reason that his 1920 marriage to Eleanor “Lo” Zink lasted only three years.

Udet joined the German Nazi party in 1933. This though was not from any political inclination but because his old commander, Gring, bribed him with the purchase of two Curtiss Export Hawk II. These planes had a profound effect on Udet, and the American designed influenced him to become a major pusher for a German dive bomber, which culminated in the Junkers Ju 87 (Stuka) bombers.
Udet became one of the most important individuals in the development of the Luftwaffe. By 1936 he was in charge of T-Amt’ the development wing of the German Air Ministry, with the rank of colonel. He found though that it was as bad as school had been with a daily routine accompanied by bureaucracy. Udet turned to alcohol, especially cognac and brandy, and amphetamines to break up the daily routine.

German industry was ill-equipped to deal with the demand for aircraft when the Second World War broke out. Production was well below what was needed, mainly caused by a lack of raw materials. Gring first lied about the situation to Hitler, but when Battle of Britain went against the Luftwaffe Gring simply blamed Udet.

Udet committed suicide in Berlin in the 17th November 1941, whilst on the phone to his mistress. Whether this was a forced suicide, arranged by the Nazi hierarchy, or a genuine suicide following depression is unconfirmed. Certainly Udet was being blocked from the developments he wished to make, with such planes as the Focke Wulf FW 190. He was also being blamed for the ineffectiveness of the Luftwaffe in general.

The Nazi regime rather than acknowledge the embarrassment of a suicide from one of their nation’s heroes, claimed that Udet had died a hero’s death whilst testing a new fighter plane. As such Udet was awarded a state funeral and was laid to rest in the Invalidefriedhof cemetery in Berlin, the same graveyard as the Red Baron as well as other national heroes.

There was one last ignominy though as a third of the cemetery was destroyed with the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961, resulting in the gradual degradation of the cemetery. It is only since reunification that Udet’s grave and others have been maintained.

Udet was a hero on the losing side of the First World War. Joining the Nazi party has never diminished his hero status, as it was obvious that he was totally uninterested in politics, a nationalist he was purely concerned with the development of the Luftwaffe. His bravery and skills deserve to be recorded and recognised.

Biography of RJ Mitchell

No war has every been won due to efforts of just one man, but the inventor and engineer RJ Mitchell came as close to achieving this feat as any man has ever done. It was the work of RJ Mitchell that ensured that the threatened Nazi Invasion of Britain never occurred, Mitchell was after all an inventor, and the man who designed the Supermarine Spitfire, the wonder machine of the Battle of Britain. His designs and creations did much to ensure that the German forces never gained the supremacy needed to cause an end to the war in Europe.

Reginald Joseph Mitchell was born on the 20th May 1895 in the village of Talke, Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire. Mitchell was the eldest child of Herbert Mitchell and Eliza Jane Brain, and ended up with two younger brothers. A middleclass upbringing was secured by his father’s employment as headmaster at local schools, and a later career as owner of a printing business.

RJ Mithcell - PD-life-70

 A good student with some academic ability, Mitchell left Hanley High School at the age of sixteen, and immediately acquired an apprenticeship position at a local engineering firm. The firm, Kerr Stuart & Co, were a locomotive engineering works, and Mitchell was employed in their drawing department. He was though not satisfied with his position, and at night attended night school to improve his mathematics and engineering knowledge.

Mitchell stayed with the firm of Kerr Stuart & Co for five years. His additional schooling though served him well and in 1917 he headed to Southampton to take up a position with the Supermarine Aviation Works. Initially a designer, his skills were such that within a year he had been promoted to the position of Chief Designer and Engineer at the firm.

In his time at the Supermarine Aviation Works, between 1920 and 1936, Mitchell designed twenty-four aircraft. These aircraft ranged from light aircraft, seaplanes, flying boats, to fighters and bombers. His designs impressed the RAF, and in August 1924 they ordered six prototypes of an armed flying-boat, the Southampton. This was despite the fact it would be another six months before they would be built. The Southampton eventually equipped six RAF squadrons and stayed in operation until 1935 when they were replaced by another Mitchell creation, the Walrus’.

Supermarine Walrus - .Aircraft of the Fighting Powers - PD-UK-gov

Such was his reputation that he had been given a ten year contract in 1923, and when Vickers brought the Supermarine firm in 1928, it was on the proviso that Mitchell remained contractually bound until the end of his contract at the earliest.

Mitchell’s name, though, was hardly known outside of aviation and military circles. In 1931 though, this changed with the running of the annual Schneider Trophy. Now promoted to Technical Director, Mitchell designed a seaplane, the Supermarine S6B. The Supermarine firm had had reasonable success in the previous nine runnings but the S6B was special. On the 13th September, 1931, the S6B won the trophy averaging a speed of 340mph. Even this speed was surpassed a few months later when a new world air speed record was set at 407.5mph.

The Air Ministry took notice of the Trophy win and promptly put in a request for a new fighter plane from Mitchell and the Supermarine firm. Thus was born Mitchell’s greatest invention, the single seat Spitfire fighter. Designed between 1934 and 1936, it was the culmination of all of Mitchell’s knowledge and experience, as well as the best parts from other existing planes.

Based on the S6B, the Spitfire was powered by a Rolls Royce Merlin II 1030bhp engine. The first prototype had its maiden flight on the 5th March 1936, from Eastleigh. Tests would show a top speed of 350mph, and even before the tests were completed the RAF were impressed enough to order 310 of the planes. Thus in 1937 the Supermarine Spitfire Mk I went into production, although it is rumoured that Mitchell was not impressed with the Spitfire’ name.

With a successful plane designed, Mitchell moved onto his last project a four-engine bomber, the Type 317, although it was never completed.

Despite a successful career, Mitchell was always a retiring person, and kept his personal life out of the public gaze. Mitchell was married, to Florence Dayson in 1918. Florence had been a headmistress of the Dresden Infants’ School, together they had one son, Gordon (born 1920).

Aside from that his personal life was a mystery although Mitchell was known to have gotten his pilot’s license in 1934.

Even in 1934 though Mitchell was not a well man, and he had had a colostomy in 1933 to treat rectal cancer. The operation, though a success, left him weak. He continued to work and his colleagues had no idea of his pain. In 1936 Mitchell was once again diagnosed with cancer. This time the illness was so severe that in 1937 he had to give up work.

In March 1937 he went to a specialist clinic after the insistence of his wife. He was advised that it was too late to treat him. Despite a further trip to the American Foundation in Vienna, it proved futile. Mitchell died on the 11th June 1937 at his house, “Hazeldene” in Southampton. Four days later his ashes were interred at South Stoneham Cemetery in Eastleigh.

Mitchell never got to see his Spitfire fly in combat.

Mitchell was never truly recognised for his work. Whilst he received a CBE in 1932 for his work on high-speed flight his work on the Spitfire was only recognised on film. The 1942 Leslie Howard film “The First of the Few” portrayed the man and his work.

R.J. Mitchell is one of the great engineers of all time and a true unsung hero.

Lyonesse Cornwall's Atlantis

There are tales the world over of lost civilisations, of cities swallowed up by the ocean. These stories range from the coast of India, through the Mediterranean and include the legendary city of Atlantis. Lyonesse is the Cornish equivalent of these lost cities, with the added intrigue of links to Arthurian legends.

Cornish stories tell of a land lying off the coast of the county, between Land’s End and the Scilly Isles. This Cornish Atlantis was known as Lethowstow rather than Lyonesse. Lyonesse was actually an English interpretation of the French, Lonois, which related to the Latinised name for Lothian in Scotland. It wasn’t until the reign of Elizabeth I that the name Lyonesse was linked with Cornwall.
Arthurian legends stated that Lyonesse was ruled by the knight Tristam’s father, Meliodas. Upon Meliodas’s death, Tristam inherited the throne and the land. Tristam though was away at the court of his uncle, King Mark of Cornwall. Before he could return home the land had been swept away into the sea. This is of course in contradiction to the Alfred Lord Tennyson version of the stories which depicted Lyonesse as the setting for the final battle between Arthur and Mordred.

Lyonesse - Robin222 - CC-BY-SA-3.0

Lyonesse also appeared in other myths, with a prominent role in the Celtic stories of Cornwall and Breton. As the Celtic stories though were overtaken by new Christian beliefs, Lyonesse was perceived as the Cornish version of Sodom and Gomorrah. Christian tales would say how the land was swallowed by the sea as retribution for the unholy activities that took place there.

So how much truth is there in the stories of Lyonesse disappearing beneath the waves? There are legends of drowned lands around the world. There is Cantref Gwaelod in Cardigan Bay and Leonais in Brittany to name but two. It is easy to see how stories arise, even in recorded history the city of Dunwich in East Anglia has disappeared beneath the waves of the North Sea.

The coastline of Cornwall has certainly changed in the past two thousand years. Roman description of the Isles of Scilly appears to refer to it as one land mass, rather than individual islands, a land mass that may have stretched to Land’s End. Oceanographic research shows that a drop in sea levels of 10 metres today would result in solid land stretching from Cornwall to the Isles.

Lyonesse - Gerritse from NL - CC-BY-SA-3.0

There are even written reports of the disappearance of the Cornish lands. The Saxon Chronicle gives a date of the 11th November 1099 as the night when the waves drowned Lethowstow. The Chronicle reports on the demise of one hundred and forty churches, as well as additional chapels, baptisteries and holy wells. The Chronicle though did not record the number of people and livestock lost.

Many local stories were gathered in the sixteenth century by William Camden, a local antiquarian. These gave many other dates as opposed to 1099 for the disappearance of Lyonesse/Lethowstow, these dates ranged from 1089 back through to the sixth century. Locals also stated that the capital of Lyonesse was The Town’ which stood where the Seven Stones reef is today, some eighteen miles west of Land’s End. Locals would also tell of how the bells of the drowned churches could still be heard on rough and stormy nights.

Local legends tell of only one survivor. A member of the Trevelyan family from Launceston, who saw the disaster coming and escaped on the back of a white horse, which was said to run on the crests of the waves. He is said to have found shelter in a cave near Marazion, from which he witnessed the total disappearance of the countryside. Even today the coat of arms of the Trevelyan family still displays a white horse rising from the waves.

It seems unreasonable though to suggest that there are no other records to substantiate the local tales. If there were one hundred and forty churches on the landmass, surely there would be records attaching them to a cathedral, abbey or priory? Even in the Dark Ages there are such written accounts for other parishes.

What is certain though is that on a calm day it is possible to see remnants of walls beneath the surface of the sea. Field boundaries can also be observed along the Sampson Flats between the islands of Tresco and Sampson. People still claim to have heard the church bells chime on stormy nights even today.

Whether there is a lost city off the coast of Cornwall is unknown there is certainly enough archaeological evidence to show some sort of habitude. Local tales also indicate knowledge of when a dry land existed in the area. More important though than any evidence is the romantic image of bells of long lost churches still being heard today.

Copyright - First Published 29th March 2008

Trellech Lost city of Wales

Driving through the countryside between Monmouth and Chepstow you may happen across the sleepy hamlet of Trellech. Today, Trellech is a small village but this small settlement hides evidence of previous one, giving rise to the legend of “the lost city of Ancient Wales”.

Written evidence tells of how Trellech has a history dating back a thousand years, and at its peak, the settlement was one of the most important cities of mediaeval Wales.

There is little physical evidence of this mediaeval city though, and as a result there is much that is unknown about it.

Looking towards Trellech - Ros Hallett - CC-BY-SA-2.0

The name Trellech means “three stones”, and is a name that signifies the presence of standing stones in the area. Locally these leaning stones are known as “Harold’s Stones”, supposedly in reference to the king of England defeated at Hastings. Of course, the stones predate King Harold by hundreds of years, with supposition being that they are from the Bronze Age, and aligned for the winter solstice.
There is obvious physical evidence for occupation of the area in the time of King Harold, as a Norman castle’s motte was located on the 40 foot high mound that is “Terret Tump”.

Historians are today mostly interested in the period from when the castle was constructed, as it was a period when William the Conqueror built a string of castles to secure the Welsh border. Around such castles grew settlements, and the Trellech castle would have protected the local workings of charcoal and iron ore.

Within two hundred years of the Norman conquest, the settlement of Trellech was made up of 378 burgage plots, or houses, making it larger than Cardiff or Chepstow from the same period.

This though was in 1288; the limited written evidence suggests that three years after this date, much of Trellech was destroyed. The cause of the destruction being in relation to a case of deer poaching.
The town though survived in the hands of the de Clare family of Marcher lords, but the fourteenth century brought further hardship for the settlement as the Black Death hit the area in 1340 and 1350.
Further tragedy hit Trellech though when the town was burnt down in the early part of the fifteenth century.

The blame for this has been put down to Owain Glyndr and his men. Owain was the last native Prince of Wales, and the man who led an unsuccessful rebellion against the English crown.

Despite this destruction, Trellech still existed in some form, as it had a mayor and market recorded in 1695.

At some point the old settlement disappeared and the new village appeared, and the original site of the four hundred burgages was lost.

Trellech's Holy Well - Roy Parkhouse - CC-BY-SA-2.0

The local Monmouth Archaeological Society has been searching for the exact location for the last thirty years. There only point of reference was the local church, St Nicholas’, a church that has been dated back to the 13th century, making it part of the original settlement.

Since 2004 the Monmouth Archaeological Society has been digging to the south of the present village. One member of the Society was so convinced that they were on the right track he (Stuart Wilson) brought a field to enable further excavations. Wilson’s story was told on the BBC Radio 4 programme “The Boy Who Bought a Field” in 2006.

Excavating the field has proved to show some success in recent years. Walls of houses have been uncovered as has yard-paving. Ceramic finds have also been discovered indicating that the village was burnt down in the 1290′s. The Society believes that the evidence points to a severe fire destroying about a hundred of the burgages. This fire they blame on Welsh nationalists trying to drive out the Norman English from the settlement.

Many settlements throughout the British Isles disappeared during the mediaeval period. Some disappeared due to the population being wiped out by the Black Death, other settlements were also flattened to allow the landscaping of huge country estates.

Trellech though is by far the largest settlement known to have disappeared from the British landscape. Whether it is a true lost city though is debatable because of the existence of St Nicholas’ church and Trellech castle pinpointing at least the rough location.

Copyright - First Published 28th March 2008

Peter the Great

Peter I of Russia is one of those few European leaders who have been accredited with the title The Great’. As Tsar of Russia, Peter earned this accolade through his modernisation and westernisation of the country, turning it from a minor country to major European power within his lifetime. His methods may not always have been moral but his results were impressive.

Peter was born Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov in Moscow on the 30th May 1672. Peter was one of a number of children of the Russian Tsar, Alexis I. Peter’s mother was the Tsar’s second wife, Nataliva Kyrillovna Naryshkina. Peter’s early childhood was a privileged one, but not a particularly happy one.

Alexis I died in 1676, when Peter was just four. The role of Tsar was passed to Peter’s half-brother, Feodor III. This transition was relatively smooth as the line of succession was clear. Problems arose though when Feodor died in 1682. Feodor had no children and as such the throne should have passed to another of Peter’s half-brother’s Ivan V. Ivan though was a sickly child. Thus the Russian nobles declared that Peter was to become the Tsar.

This declaration incited a dispute between the families of Alexis I’s two wives, the Naryshkin and Miloslavsky, about which of their sons should become Tsar. Sophia Alekseyevna, Peter’s step-sister and a Miloslavsky, organised a rebellion with the backing of the Russian elite military corps, the Streltsy. The rebellion was a bloody one, and Peter himself witnessed the butchering of a number of his friends and family. Seeing his best friend and uncle killed are often seen as a cause of some of Peter’s mental and physical problems in later years.

With military backing it was Sophia who was ultimately successful with her rebellion. Sophia insisted on a joint Tsar-ship, with her brother Ivan as the senior Tsar. As both Tsars were underage, Sophia acted as regent exercising complete rule, with the Tsars purely used as her mouth pieces. Sophia, was influenced herself by her lover, Prince Golitsin. It is not certain who actually came up with the Russian policies. During Sophia’s consortship there were unpopular domestic policies, as well as ineffectual foreign campaigns, including two disasters in the Crimea.

Peter was not actually too concerned about ruling the country. He was of course still a child, and would spend most of his time playing with his toy soldiers. Even into his teenage years, he found more enjoyment in travels to Germany and learning about ship building and sailing, than any element of government. Peter’s mother attempted to force him to take more of an interest in affairs of state. One method she adopted was a marriage to Eudoxia Lopukhina in 1689. The marriage though was a disaster from the start and Eudoxia soon found herself deserted by her husband.

Peter’s mother though was successful in getting him more interested in politics. Sophia’ seven years of rule came to an end in 1689 as Peter saw the unsuccessful Crimean campaigns as the tool he needed to take power. Using the Triotsky monastery as a seat of power, he gathered supporters to him. This time he also had the backing of most of the Streltsy.

At the age of 17, Peter had successfully unseated Sophia, although in name he was still co-Tsar with Ivan. Peter banished Sophia to a convent, and set about minimising the influence of Ivan. He did though have to deal with the interference of his mother, and in truth it was only with the death of Nataliva Naryshkina in 1694 that could exert his true power. Power which was made ultimate with the death of Ivan in 1696, when Peter was declared Sovereign of all Russia.

Peter’s travels to Western Europe in his youth, had taught Peter of the advancements available. He brought in advisors from these countries and started to implement reforms designed to modernise the country. One of the first areas he focused on was the nation’s army and navy. To make a fulltime navy worthwhile, Peter saw that Russia required maritime ports. The Baltic though was controlled by Sweden whilst the Black Sea was controlled by the Ottoman Empire.

Peter turned his forces to the Black Sea, which required the defeat of the Tatars and the Crimean Khan. The main fortress was that of Azov, it took Peter almost a year before the fortress fell to his forces. The fall of the fort allowed the creation of the first Russian naval base on the Black Sea’s coastline. Once won though the fortress had to be held, the Russian army was in no position to fight the might of the Ottoman Empire in a long drawn out war, thus Peter went on a diplomatic mission to the west to find support.

Diplomatically the mission was far from a success, Austria and France would not assist him. In other ways though the mission helped Peter, he advanced his knowledge of shipbuilding in Amsterdam, as well as sailing and navigation spending four months in the Dutch East India Company’s main shipyard. Peter also learnt about fire fighting, city building and much other western advancements.
He was though forced to return home to suppress a rebellion which sought to put Sophia back on the throne. The rebellion was ruthless crushed by Peter, who had 1200 of the rebels executed after a period of torture. Peter still recognised the need for military advancement. So in 1698 sent a party to the Knights of Malta, to learn their techniques and also to form an alliance.

Peter was now totally convinced that European customs were far more advanced than Russian ones. One of the more weird requirements that Peter made to ensure that Russia fell in line with Europe, was to make all civil servants and courtiers clean shaven. Anyone refusing to shave was to pay an annual beard tax. The other major alteration Peter made from this period was the changing of the New Year celebrations from the 1st September to 1st January.

With no alliance from Western governments, Peter made peace with the Ottoman Empire. Such was his diplomacy though he was even able to keep the captured Azov fort. Peter then looked to the north to assist his vision of Russian maritime supremacy. Peter wanted an all weather port, which meant the acquisition of a port on the Baltic. This though meant war with King Charles XII of Sweden. At the time the Swedish empire was a powerful force. Twenty-one years of fighting followed the declaration of war.

The war didn’t start well and but for the distraction of Charles XII, the Russian force could well have been wiped out in 1700. Success though followed and Peter took Izhora, which he promptly made the site of his new capital, St Petersburg, in 1703.

During this period he also decided to end his first marriage, Eudoxia Lopukhina was forced to become a nun, annulling his marriage, despite his wife bearing him three children. Of the three sons born, Alexei, Alexander and Pavel, only Alexei lived past his first birthday. Peter took a mistress, Martha Skavronskaya, and this time it appeared to be a relationship of love. Martha converted to the Russian Orthodox Church and changed her name to Catherine. The couple were secretly married in 1707, and then publicly married in 1712.

Catherine bore Peter seven children; Anna, Elizabeth, Natalia, Margarita, Peter, Pavel, and another Natalia. Anna and Elizabeth though were the only children to survive into adulthood.
Alexei from the first marriage didn’t live long into adulthood himself, as in 1718 he was convicted of high treason by his father. Secretly executed it is not clear whether it was for an attempted coup or failure to follow Peter’s orders and official policies.

The war against Sweden though took a turn for the worse in 1706, when Peter’s Polish ally King August II was forced to abdicate following Charles’ victory. Swedish forces marched into Russia although the loss of he reserve forces at the Battle of Lesnaya stopped the Swedish advance. In the summer of 1709 the Russian forces defeated the Swedish army at the Battle of Poltava forcing King Charles XII into exile within the Ottoman Empire.

Peter then turned his attention back to the Ottoman Empire, he did though over estimate his strength and army’s ability. The Russian forces were crushed and the ensuing peace treaty saw the loss of most of his Black Sea possessions. Charles XII was also returned to power in Sweden and so the battle to the north continued once again.

Peter though had made good usage of the years of control of the north and by 1714, the Russian navy was the most powerful in the Baltic arena. This power attached to more diplomacy from Peter ensured that some European nations, Hanover and Prussia, joined his force. It was though three years after Charles XII’s death in 1718 before peace with Sweden was achieved. The Great Northern War ended in 1721, with Russia acquiring Estonia and Livonia as well as Finnish lands around his new capital of St Petersburg. The war also ensured that Russia had ports open all year round, ensuring continual trade with the rest of Europe.

St Petersburg is worthy of note, as in 1712 Peter moved the Russian capital to the new city. The whole city was designed to be a modern European one, as opposed to the more traditional Moscow. It was here that Peter also built his main palace, Peterhof’ designed to compete with Versailles.
Following 1721 Russia had a period of peace, aside from excursions into Persia. In October 1721 Peter was acclaimed as Emperor of All Russia, Great Father of the Fatherland and The Great’. This period of peace allowed Peter to continue his reformation of the country.

Peter turned his attention to the Church. The Russian Orthodox Church was placed under the control of the state, and a new law was passed to ensure that no Russian man could become a monk before the age of 50.

In 1722, Peter created a Table of Ranks’ where position within the Russian Empire was determined on ability and services provided, no longer would birth guarantee a position. Peter also introduced a new parliament the Senat/Duma which would deal with the governing of the country in the absence of Peter. Peter introduced education to a proportion of the population. A law was passed to make all children of the nobility, government officials and clerk, between the ages of 10 and 15, would have to learn mathematics and geometry.

Peter also introduced new taxes to fund Peter’s projects to improve Russia. New head taxes were to be paid by all, but land taxes were reformed so that they were only payable by those who owned land and property. He put into use everything he had learnt during his lifetime.

Peter though had a mean streak. He had his first wife executed and was not averse to torture in case where he believed uprising was planned. There are also tales that he used his own servants in war games, where he used live ammunition in recreations of his toy soldier battles.

There is also one other notable fact about Peter. Peter was almost seven foot tall. He towered over his subjects and also his rival European leaders. Peter, in common with many Russian Tsars, though was not the healthiest of individuals. In 1724 he was forced into an operation to remove urine block.

Despite the need for recovery he went on a tour of Russia engineering projects. Legend has it that it was at a project along the Finnish Gulf that he personally rescued some drowning soldiers. The time in the water though is said to have brought about a bout of pneumonia, which caused his death on the 28th January 1725. A later autopsy though revealed gangrene in his bladder.

Peter died at the age of 52, following forty-two years of Russian rule. Peter though died without nominating an heir; as a result his wife took up the position of Empress.

Peter deserves the title Great’; he transformed Russia from a minor European country into a European power. An uneducated and uncivilised country was transformed into a modern nation with a modern army to enforce its will.

Copyright - First Published 28th March 2008

The Victoria Cross

The Victoria Cross has now been in existence for over a hundred and fifty years, and people know that those given the medal have done something above and beyond their duty in order to be awarded it. Traditionally given for valour when faced by the enemy, the prestige of the Victoria Cross ensures that it is normally presented to the recipient by the reigning British monarch.

Up until the Crimean War, there was no way of rewarding the ordinary soldier for acts of heroism. Officers could receive the "Order of the Bath", and enlisted men may have received a Brevet
promotion, scope for both though was limited. The Crimean War saw the first press coverage of a war, and it soon became apparent acts of gallantry were not being recognised. Other countries had awards recognising their soldiers independent of rank, the French for example had the "Legion d’honneur".

Victoria Cross - Public Domain

In 1854 the Liberal Member of Parliament, Captain Scobell, put forward a motion to instigate a merit based award available to all military personnel. This motion was eventually forwarded to Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Victoria issued a warrant on the 29th January 1856 that instigated the Victoria Cross, backdating the award to acts of valour in the Crimean War.

Victoria and her husband appear to have been very involved in the inception of the medal. The original idea for the name was the "Military Order of Victoria"; Prince Albert though had this amended to the Victoria Cross. Victoria also insisted that she should make the presentations. Thus the first medals were awarded at a ceremony in Hyde Park on the 26th June 1857. Victoria personally handing out sixty-two medals to recipients from the Crimean War.

The London firm of Hancocks has been responsible for all Crosses produced. Originally all of the VCs were to be made from the bronze of captured Russian cannons from the siege of Sebastapol. Examination of VCs though shows that some have been made from Chinese metal, but whether this is because of Russian use of Chinese cannons or whether there were the remnants of cannons captured in the Boxer Rebellion is unknown.

Current VCs are produced from the barrel of a cannon held in a vault at the Royal Logistic Corps in Telford. When ever it is moved it is always under armed guard.

The cross is a "cross pattee", often described as a Maltese Cross, and stands at 41mm high and 36 mm across. The original design was chosen by Queen Victoria, and is said to have been based on the Army Gold Cross from the Napoleonic Wars. The front of the medal has raised edgings and contains a crown guarded by a lion. Below this emblem is a scroll bearing the words "For Valour", this had been altered by Victoria from "For Bravery". The reverse of the medal also has raised edges, and is engraved with the date of the act for which the award is given.

The cross is suspended from a bar by a ribbon. Originally there were two different coloured ribbons, red for the army and blue for naval recipients, with the formation of the RAF though a universal crimson ribbon was brought in. The bar itself is engraved on the reverse with the recipient’s name, rank and unit.

Guy Gibson's Medals - Pandaplodder - released into PD

The rules for the awarding of the Cross are not exactly straightforward. Current wording states the medal is for “… most conspicuous bravery, or some daring or pre-eminent act of valour or self-sacrifice, or extreme devotion to duty in the presence of the enemy.” Ultimately all awards are authorised by the monarch following a recommendation by an army officer.

There have been rule changes throughout the last one hundred years. Originally all recipients had to be alive, although this rule was overlooked during the Boer War and First World War. This rule was only changed in 1920. There is also a ballot clause. In the event that a company of men, such as a ship’s crew is deserving of the award, a ballot is held to pick one recipient. This rule though has not been needed since 1918.

Originally the award was for British troops, this was extended to colonial troops in 1867. It was though only given to colonial troops under the command of British troops. As time progressed though this rule was extended to colonial troops, even if there was no British government or military involvement. This culminated with the award of four medals to Australian troops in Vietnam, even though Britain was not involved in the war.

The wording of the award has also been altered over time. Up until 1881 a medal could be awarded for facing extreme danger, the rules then were changed to be awarded for facing the enemy. Eventually the George Cross was brought in to reward those for valour without facing the enemy, with the GC becoming the joint highest reward.

In the 150 year history of the VC there was only been 1352 recipients. It would be impossible to record all of the exploits that these individuals have undertaken to receive their awards. Each case is as remarkable as the next. I will though mention the three individuals who have received two VCs.
Arthur Martin-Leake (1874-1953) won a VC in the Boer War, where he was a surgeon, and attended the wounded whilst under heavy enemy fire. His second award came during the First World War, where he rescued wounded soldiers whilst under fire.

Noel Chavasse (1884-1917) was also a medic. Both of his awards came during the First World War, in 1916 at Guillemont, he rescued twenty wounded men whilst under fire. The following year tended the wounded despite being seriously wounded himself, wounds he would later die from.

The final recipient was also the only combatant to receive two VCs. Charles Upham (1908-1994), a New Zealander, received his first in 1941 in Crete for close-quarter fighting and rescuing a wounded man. The second came in 1942 whilst in Egypt and despite being wounded he took an enemy position and rescued a number of his wounded men.

There is any number of facts that could be rolled out about the awarding of the Victoria Cross. The largest number of VCs awarded in one action is to the defenders of Rorke’s Drift, as immortalised in the film Zulu, where eleven VCs were awarded. The end of the film records those individual honours.

The most VCs awarded in one day came about in the early days of the Victoria Cross’s existence. On the 16th November 1857, during the Indian Rebellion and the relief of Lucknow, twenty-four VCs were handed out.

The most Crosses handed out in any conflict were the six hundred and thirty-four, during the First World War. There are many other random facts; there are only eleven living holder; no women have received one; four pairs of siblings have had them; and three fathers and sons have been recipients.
Since the end of the Second World War only thirteen VCs have been awarded by Queen Elizabeth II. The most recent ones have been a single one in the 2004 Iraq war, and a posthumous award to Corporal Budd in Afghanistan. In addition there were four awarded in the Korean War; one in Malaysia, four to Australians in the Vietnam War and two in the Falklands conflict.

Today it is impossible for a VC winner to have their award taken from them. King George V altered the law to ensure that even if committed of murder the man was still entitled to the wearing of his award. The change in law also meant that eight men who had forfeited their award were recognised once again. By the time of George V most had already passed away, with their offences being mostly for petty theft.

Canada, Australia and New Zealand have all instigated their own version of the VC since 1991; Victoria Cross (Canada), Victoria Cross of Australia and the Victoria Cross of New Zealand. New Zealand and Australia use the metal from the Crimean War cannons, although Canada are using some other source. As of today only one New Zealand medal has been awarded, Bill Apiata received his medal in 2007 for his actions in Afghanistan.

There are some small benefits for a serviceman winning the VC, an annual annuity of GBP1,495 is paid by the government. Other equivalent amounts are paid by Commonwealth governments to their service personnel. Also a tradition is that any service person will salute the holder of the VC. This results in the Chief of Staff saluting a private, even though there is no rule that this must be done
Personally I would love to have a Victoria Cross although I know I am never going to earn it. They can be brought, which in many ways is a shame in itself. The fact that individuals or families need to sell their Victoria Cross to gain some financial security makes you wonder if the annuity is enough. Then again if I had the money I would buy one. They are not cheap to buy, one of the most recent on the open market was sold for AU$1million. This was the 2006 sale of Captain Alfred Shout 1915 posthumous award. Kerry Stokes who brought the medal is to loan is for display at the Australian War Memorial.

Most people will only be able to view a VC at one of the collections that display them. The public can view forty VCs at the Imperial War Museum in London, or the sixty-one held at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. There are also private collections, the largest of which is held by Lord Ashcroft who has in excess of one hundred and forty VCs.

I am not going to criticise any individual having a private collection, and especially not Lord Ashcroft. It was Lord Ashcroft who put up most of the NZ$300,000 reward for the successful return of 9 Victoria Crosses stolen from the QEII Army Memorial Museum in Waiouru, New Zealand.

Theft of such a sought after item is not unheard of, and whilst the New Zealand medals were returned there are still several circulating on the black market following thefts around the world.

The winner of the VC deserves all the recognition they get. Yes they receive a small financial reward, but they should be recognised for their acts of valour that mean they have done something extraordinary in the face of extreme danger.

Copyright - First Published 27th March 2008

The Leaning Tower of Pisa

There are few buildings anywhere in the world that are as iconic as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. One of the most easily identifiable of tourist attractions, the historic monument continues to attract visitors from around the world all year round.

Building of the Tower of Pisa commenced on the 9th August 1173. Set in the Campo del Maracol (Field of Miracles), also known as the Piazza del Duomo, it was originally designed to be the campanile for the adjacent Cathedral and Baptistery. The last of the structures in the square to be built it was of course originally designed to stand upright, but construction started on unstable subsoil.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa - Alkarex Malin äger - CC-BY-SA-3.0

There is some debate about the original architect for the bell tower. For a long period it has been attributed to Bonanno Pisano, mainly due to his sarcophagus being buried beneath the tower’s footings. Recent ideas though have indicated that Diotsalvi may have the honour as original designer. The Romanesque style is indicative of his work, work that includes the Baptistery and San Nicola tower, both in Pisa.

As already stated though building commenced in an unfortunate place and by the time the tower had reached its third floor, in 1178, a lean to the south-east was easily noticeable. Building on weak subsoil was made worse when the plans only allowed for three metre deep foundations. Made from local white and pastel marble, the first floor is made up of pillars topped with classical capitals against blind arcaded galleries. There are also sculptures of animals to be seen.

Construction though was interrupted as Pisa’s prosperity and security was interrupted with a series of clashes with the neighbouring cities of Florence, Lucca and Genoa. One hundred years passed before construction commenced again in 1272. The delay in construction allowed for the underlying soil to compact, probably saving the tower from collapse.

The building of the tower resumed under the architect Giovanni di Simone. Simone made the decision to compensate for visible lean by building the subsequent floors at an angle against the tilt. A further three floors were built in the years up to 1284, but again the building work ceased when Pisa was defeated in battle by the city of Genoa.

Leaning Tower and Basilica - Georges Jansoone - CC-BY-SA-3.0

The seventh floor was finally finished in 1319, but it was a further fifty three years before the bell-chamber was added. The bell chamber was the first floor to steer away from the Romanesque style to more of a Gothic one. The second through to the seventh floor have open arcaded galleries, with the repeating arches providing a symmetrical image.

The bell chamber holds seven bells in total, each equating to a note on the musical scale. The L’assunta bell is the heaviest at 3,620kg, but it is La Pasquereccia that has the most history. This bell was originally cast in 1262, and therefore older than the bell chamber, and was originally housed in the Vergata tower in Pisa. There it was used to announce the executions of criminals. It was moved to the campanile in the 18th century to replace a broken bell.

The work by Simone created a curve aspect to the tower, but on completion it stood at 183ft 3in. At an estimated 14,700 tonnes in weight, it is of no surprise that the thickness of the walls at the base stand at 8ft.

In addition to being a tourist attraction since the 12th century, the tower has been a working bell tower. Legend has it that was also used by Galileo Galilei in an experiment about masses and descending speeds. The tower was saved from destruction during the Second World War when it was not bombed despite being an enemy observation post.

Saved from destruction during the war, collapse has often been seen to be imminent because of the lean that has increased over the years.

Mussolini during the 1930s actually attempted to straighten the tower by pouring concrete into the foundations; this though only caused further problems as the tower sank further. By1964 the problem was so acute that the Italian government asked for help from across the world. Plans were discussed with mathematicians and engineers involved. Whilst it was discovered that sunlight was causing the stonework to expand and contract on a daily basis, there were few ideas on how to solve the problem of the continuing lean. By the 1980s the lean was still increasing by 0.05 inches per year, giving the tower a finite lifespan until it collapsed.

Drastic solutions were called for and so on 7th January 1990 the tower was closed to tourists, and the bells were silenced. The tower needed to be straightened. 70 tonnes of earth (thirty-eight cubic metres) were removed from underneath the tower whilst steel cables and lead weights held the tower up. This removal of earth, completed in 2001, straightened the tower by 17 inches, returning the tower to the leaning position of 1838.
Today the tower leans at 3.97 degrees, and there is confidence amongst engineers that the tower is safe for another 300 years. Work on the tower is still continuing today, though this has more to do with aesthetics than structural safety, and today the work comprises of surface restoration to remove corrosion and blackening of the white marble.
The Piazza del Duomo has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage site and continues to attract thousands of tourists daily. So many tourists cannot be wrong; it is well worth a visit. By 2007 the tower had reopened and limited numbers of visitors are allowed to ascend the internal staircase to take in the views from the top of the tower. Tickets can be purchased from the nearby tower tourist office, but each ticket has a time on it which may be a number of hours in the future. Get there early enough and you can spend the day in the cathedral and baptistery until your entry time comes round.

It may be difficult to avoid the street sellers, and tourists taking photos as their friends pose holding the tower up, or pushing it over, but enjoy the experience. When your time comes be prepared for the walk up the stairs, there are 294 or 296 steps to the bell chamber. There are two steps left on the north facing stair case. Also look out for the last steps up to the bell chamber, the staircase is fairly narrow and claustrophobic. Also don’t be surprised when the bells go off as you arrive at the top, entrances timing seem to be made just for that event.

Even without the obvious leave, the tower is a remarkable piece of architecture which is over 800 years old. The views from the top are impressive of the low level city but it is the history of the site that is inspiring.

Copyright - First Published 21st March 2008

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Vasco Nunez de Balboa

Vasco Nunez de Balboa deserves to be one of the most famous explorers of all time, and should rank alongside Columbus, Vasco de Gama or Magellan at the peak of the profession. Sadly overlooked when compared with his peers, Balboa was more than just an explorer, as at various times in his life he was a conquistador and governor.

Not much is known about Balboa’s childhood. He was born in about 1475 in Jerez de los Caballeros in Spain. Descended from a family line from Badajoz, his father, Nuno Arias de Balboa was only a minor nobleman, with neither money nor influence. The third of four sons, noble blood though did allow Vasco to gain a position as a squire in the house of Don Pedro de Portocarrero, Lord of Moguer.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa claims the South Sea - Unknown - PD-life-70

Don Pedro de Portocarrero’s possession around the south-west coast of Spain, brought Balboa into contact with many sailors. These men would claim that the New World could bring fame and fortune to those brave enough to sail the seas. There were many expeditions arranged to travel to the new world, and one of these was under the captaincy of Rodrigo de Bastidas. De Bastidas had gained a license to bring back treasure from the Americas. Balboa, along with his friend Juan de la Cosa, managed to gain a place on this expedition.

The year 1501 saw the expedition exploring the Caribbean coasts, from Panama and along the Colombian coast. Though realising that they were short of men they sailed to Hispaniola (the island of Haiti and Dominican Republic). The finds made on the expedition, as well as goods traded in Hispaniola, ensured that Balboa was comfortably off. Balboa invested his new funds into a plantation and pig farm, although neither proved to be a successful venture and following several years of high living, Balboa found himself deep in debt.

In 1502, to escape his debtors, Balboa stowed away on an expedition to restock and support the new settlement of San Sebastian de Uraba in Nueva Andalucia (roughly near the Honduras and Nicaragua border). Balboa was discovered by the expedition leader, Fernandez de Enciso, who decided to make use of Balboa’s knowledge of the area.

Balboa soon became a popular member of the crew, as opposed to the disliked expedition leader. Arriving in San Sebastian the expedition found the new city in ruins, following a series of attacks by the natives. Balboa convinced the remaining settlers and expedition crew that a new city could be founded on the Isthmus of Panama near Darien. On arrival though they found the natives waiting for them, a battle ensued with Cemaco and 500 of his warriors. Luck was on the side of the Spanish who were victorious. Thus a new settlement of Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien was founded in September 1510.

Balboa declared himself interim governor of Santa Maria, usurping Enciso’s power. With the support of the settlers, Balboa also managed to stop de Nicuesa, the true governor of the region, from taking control. Balboa also arrested Enciso and sent him back to Spain.

Quarrel for the Gold - Ober, Frederick A. - PD US

Under Balboa’s leadership Santa Maria prospered, the city planted crops and received fresh supplies from Hispaniola and Spain. Balboa also managed to acquire a small fortune in gold. Balboa also took on board the conquistador mentality. Balboa travelled to neighbouring regions subduing and/or befriending the local tribes. One of these lands belonged to the Comagre, Comagre welcomed Balboa and was baptised.

It was in the land of Comagre that Balboa was made aware of another sea, where gold was plentiful. Tales were told of a kingdom where everything was made of gold. Knowing that his position as governor of Santa Maria was tenuous and that he could be replaced at any moment, Balboa sought favour with King Ferdinand the Catholic’ of Spain.

In September 1513 Balboa led an expedition from Santa Maria, taking with him 190 Spanish soldiers and 1000 friendly natives. Faced with dense forest and hostile tribes, Balboa’s force made their way across the Isthmus of Panama. A depleted force eventually found themselves in the mountain range along the Chucunaque River. From the peak of one of the mountains, balboa spotted the new ocean, named the South Sea, on 25th September 1513. A wooden cross and pyramids were erected on the site where the ocean was first seen.

Descending from the mountains, the expedition still had to fight their way to the coast. The expedition split into three groups, the group led by Alonso Martin was the first to reach the coast on the 27th September. Martin returned to Balboa, who with 26 men marched back to the coast. On arrival Balboa waded into the ocean, at San Miguel, with a sword in one hand and a Virgin Mary icon in the other. This was the 29th September.

The other main aim of the expedition has been the amassing of wealth. Balboa’s forces took gold and pearl from the conquered natives, including those from an island group, that included Isla Rica. In November Balboa decided to make a return to Santa Maria, although he took a different route back it still required pitch battles against more hostile natives.

Balboa finally arrived back in Santa Maria on the 19th January, 1514. Balboa proclaimed the discovery of the South Sea, which he had taken possession of on behalf of Spain. In addition Balboa was a wealthy man, he returned with a treasure in cotton goods, quantities of pearls and a fortune in gold. Four fifths of the treasure was kept by Balboa, whilst the rest was returned to Spain and King Ferdinand.

On Balboa’s return to Santa Maria, he found that Pedro Arias de Avila (also known as Pedrarias) had been appointed as governor by the king. Balboa accepted the king’s appointment, although Balboa was forced to pay reparations to Enciso. The new governor ordered further expeditions for treasures and new settlement locations. Balboa was wounded in an expedition to the Dabaibe region, although this in no way put him off a desire to return to the South Seas.

This desire put him in the bad books of Pedrarias, who feared that Balboa was trying to usurp his position, Balboa being far more popular with the settlers than Pedrarias. Pedrarias had Balboa arrested, and threatened to lock him up in a wooden cage.

Balboa was saved from this ignominy though by recognition from the Spanish Crown for his discovery of the South Seas. Pedrarias was ordered to show Balboa the greatest respect, and place him as planner of all conquests and expeditions in the region

The animosity between Balboa and Pedrarias seemed to be at end when a marriage was arranged between Balboa and Pedrarias’ daughter, Maria de Penalosa. Balboa though had a desire to continue to explore the South Seas, and in 1517 he departed to Acla with 300 men to build four new ships for further exploration. Balboa though was summoned by Pedrarias to an urgent meeting in Santa Maria in 1518.

Balboa made his way to Santa Maria but before he arrived he was arrested and charged with an attempt to set up a rival government to that of his father-in-law. The trial was swift, under the guidance of Pedrarias and Enciso. Commenced in January 1519, a guilty verdict was returned on Balboa and four of his friends; Fernando de Argello, Luis Botello, Hernn Muoz, and Andrs Valderrbano, by the fifteenth of the same month.

All of the accused were sentenced to beheading, to be undertaken in Acla. The sentence was carried out on the 21st January, 1519, and as Pedrarias watched, Balboa was decapitated with an axe. Stories tell of it taking three attempts by the executioner to remove Balboa’s head, the whereabouts of his remains are unknown and as such makes it difficult to confirm this story.

Balboa’s discovery of the South Seas has been proclaimed second only too Columbus’ discovery by historians. His legacy still continues to this day, his colony of Darien still exists today, making it the oldest existing European settlement in mainland America. Balboa was a great explorer and popular with settlers, his achievements and popularity though made others jealous and wary of him that eventually led to his death.

Copyright - First Published 19th March 2008

Biography of Abraham Maslow

Abraham Maslow was a famous psychologist who’s work on humanistic psychology has seen his fame spread to many humanity subjects like geography and demographics. He is primarily famous for his Hierarchy of Needs’.

Abraham Harold Maslow was born on the 1st April 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. Maslow was the eldest of seven children born to Russian Jewish immigrants. Relatively uneducated themselves they saw learning as the key to their children succeeding in their new homeland. As such all of their children were encouraged to study; Abraham their oldest child was pushed especially hard as he was recognised as an intellectual at a young age.

Maslow himself felt that his childhood was relatively unhappy, alone in a strange neighbourhood he took refuge in studying and his books. Maslow spent all of his childhood in Brooklyn.

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs - J. Finkelstein - CC-BY-SA-3.0

At school Maslow was a scholarly pupil, and succeeded in gaining a place at the City College of New York. Maslow initially studied law to satisfy his parents’ wishes, but he attended graduate school at Wisconsin University. At Wisconsin he changed his subject to psychology, receiving a BA in 1930, an MA in 1931 and a Ph.D in 1934. At Wisconsin he was mentored by Harry Harlow, a psychologist famed for his work on rhesus monkeys and behaviour. Maslow developed this looking at primate’s dominance behaviour and sexuality.

During his period of study at Wisconsin, Maslow married his cousin, Bertha Goodman, with whom Maslow had two daughters.

Following his Ph.D, Maslow returned to New York in 1935, where he continued his psychology studies at Colombia University. Working with EL Thorndike, Maslow continued to develop his interest on human sexuality.

In 1937 Maslow took up a teaching post at Brooklyn College, where he soon found further mentors in Alfred Adler and Erich Fromm. Adler and Fromm were leading European psychologists. Maslow also learnt from anthropologist Ruth Benedict and Freudian psychologist Max Wertheimer. Maslow though would learn from noting their behaviour.

In 1951 Maslow moved to Brandeis University, a Massachusetts private research university, where took up the chair of the psychology department. This position allowed him to focus more on his theoretical work. At Brandeis Maslow also became friends with Kurt Goldstein, who introduced Maslow to the theory of self-actualisation. Maslow remained at Brandeis until 1969, before a brief stint as a fellow at Laughlin Institute in California.

Maslow’s primary contribution to psychology is the pyramid/ladder of basic needs, evidence suggests that he originally came up with the idea in the 1940s. The pyramid displays that some needs are more powerful than others, ranging from most urgent to the most advanced. The five categories are physiological (sex, sleep, water, food etc), safety (security of body, health, employment etc), belonging/love (friendship, family and sexual intimacy), esteem (confidence, respect of others and by others), and self-actualisation (morality, creativity etc).

The theory though is that unfulfilled needs from the lower segments of the pyramid/ladder would prevent a person climbing into the next level. Those who reached the top of the pyramid were self-actualising people. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs became the accepted notion in the fields of psychology and anthropology, as well as crossing over into other humanity fields.

Maslow did make revisions to his theory and this has meant that other major works Motivation and Personality’ (1954) and Toward a Psychology of Being’ (1962) have been overlooked to a large extent. Maslow was also critical of mainstream psychology for overusing pathology and not looking at the individual, the authentic self’.

In the later years of the 1960s, Maslow went into semi-retirement and began to spend more time at his home in California. Ill health though blighted his semi-retirement and at the age of 62, Maslow died on the 8th June, 1970 from a heart-attack.

Maslow was the leading figure of the humanistic school of psychology, which became the third force’ behind Freudian theory and behaviourism. One major work, the hierarchy of needs, has ensured that generations of psychology and humanity students have discovered the basic needs of each human being.

Copyright - First Published 18th March 2008

The Parthenon in Athens

There are few archaeological sites that are as iconic as the Parthenon in Athens. Situated on the Acropolis the temple of Athena has stood as a symbol for Athens and Greece for almost two and half thousand years.

Athena was the patron god of Athens. In fact she was so revered by the inhabitants of Attica that they named the city after her. The current incarnation of the Parthenon though, was not the first temple built on the site. Evidence shows that the Mycenean priest-kings from 1600BC-1100BC had fortified temples on the site. Even as late as the 6th century BC there is archaeological remains of at least two large temples dedicated to Athena.

Parthenon from the West - Mountain - Released into PD

The first limestone sanctuary construction though didn’t begin until circa 488BC, shortly after the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians levelled of the southern part of the Acropolis summit. Large foundations were constructed from locally sourced limestone, construction though was far from complete when the Persians sacked Athens in 480BC. The Older Parthenon’ was razed to the ground.
Thirty years were to pass before the Athenians were in a position to construct a new temple. There are two commonly given reasons for the delay in construction. Firstly there was an agreement amongst the Greek states that no destroyed sanctuaries would be rebuilt. More importantly though was the cost involved in any construction upon the Acropolis.

In 447BC the Athenian state was almost at the peak of its power. Pericles had made himself the ruler of the city, and as a general his military victories cemented his popularity. Pericles wanted a building project to ensure that the dominance of Athens was recognised. The Acropolis was obviously the best place to show off any building, and so Pericles ordered the construction of the Parthenon, the Propylaia and Erechtheion.

Pericles employed the sculptor Pheidias to supervise the construction of a temple to Athena. The building was to follow the plans of Iktinos and Kallikrates, two prominent architects of the time.
One major stumbling block was the cost of any new construction. Surviving records show that the total cost was 469 silver talents, enough money to keep forty Greek warships afloat for a year. At the time it was estimated that the total annual income for Athens was a thousand talents. A large part of the building cost was spent on the transportation of building material from Mount Pentelicus, ten miles outside of Athens.

Parthenon from South - Thermos - CC-BY-SA-2.5

The problem of cost though was overcome by moving the treasury of the Delian League to the Acropolis, from the Panhellenic Sanctuary at Delos, and then making use of the funds. The Delian League was a collaboration of Greek states, formed to fight the threat of the Persian Empire. The threat from Persia though had reduced by 447BC, and with the signing of a peace treaty in 449BC, Pericles believed that Athens could make better use of the money. Pericles was also confident of Athens’ dominance over their Greek neighbour, so that there would be no complaint.

Construction though as well as money took time, and although the temple was dedicated to the goddess in 438BC it was not until 432BC that construction was completed. Even then it was a further year before all decorations were finished. When completed the building extended to 228 feet long, 101 feet wide and some 34 feet high. There is no evidence of an alter within the temple, and the primary function of the new building appears to be to house a statue of Athena. The statue though was no normal statue, of gigantic proportions it was sculptured by Pheidias. Made from wood, gold and ivory, it was said to stand forty feet tall.

The Parthenon was constructed out of white marble and built in the Doric style. Doric relates to the proportions of the building, with thick and short columns. The Doric style is described as the easiest Greek construction styles, consisting as it does of a stylobate (the base) and fluted column shafts..
Some of the most obvious features are its pillars, forty-six outer ones, including eight on the faade, as well as nineteen inner pillars. These columns extend around the outside of the whole building, whilst inside they help define the interior rooms. There are two main interior rooms, a large naos’ housing the Pheidias statue, and a smaller treasury. The columns and pillars held up a roof in antiquity consisting of large overlapping marble tiles.

Parthenon at Night - Ggia - CC-BY-SA-3.0

Whilst the Parthenon was constructed out of white marble, it was not a plain building. The decorative stone work was original vividly coloured. It is the decorations that set it aside from many other temples of the period. These decorations are divided into the Metopes, Pedimental Sculptures and the Frieze.

There are ninety-two metopes on the Parthenon, each carved in high relief. Each metope displays a battle of good versus evil, either from history or mythology. Carved between 446BC and 440BC, the ones which remain on the temple are badly damaged although the ones on display in various museums, including the British Museum are better preserved.

On the west face, there is a mythical battle by the Athenians against the Amazons. There is some evidence though that the Amazonomachy, may have some basis in real events. The eastern end metopes display the Gigantomachy, the fight between the Olympian gods and the Giants. The north side shows what is believed to be the Trojan war, although these metopes are the least well preserved. The best preserved metopes are on the south and display elements of the Centauromachy. The Centauromachy, was the battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, the Athenian king Theseus was said to have aided the Lapiths.

The metopes were all carved in the Early Classic style, or Sever Style. The style was an attempt by the Greek sculptors to show the human form, and so depictions are more lifelike.

The east and western ends of the Parthenon each have a set of Pedimental relief sculptures. Larger than the metopes, the Pedimentals show elements of Athena’s life.

The eastern pediment shows the story of Athena’s birth from the head of Zeus. To relieve a headache, Zeus had Hephaestus strike him with his hammer. From the wound the goddess Athena appear fully clad in her armour. There is only supposition as to what the full relief would have shown in antiquity, as even by the 17th century the central elements had been destroyed.

The western end depicts the story of how Athena became the patron god of Athens. A contest between Poseidon and Athena had been resolved by each god supplying a gift to the inhabitants of the city. Athena provided an olive tree, whilst Poseidon gave a salt water spring. Gaps in the relief are filled with figures from other Athenian legends.

The pediments were completed after the metopes, from 438BC to 432BC, and as a result show a slightly differing style. Described as classical style, the figures show natural movement and finer detail.

The last relief is the Ionic frieze that runs around the upper edge of the exterior walls. Carved in situ, from 442BC to 438BC, on a narrow band, the band is only three and half feet wide. There is debate about what the frieze actually depicts.

The north, west and south faces show a procession of musicians, horsemen and animals, whilst the east face shows a scene of a child handing an offering to an old man. This procession of people could be a representation of the annual procession to honour Athena. Although some archaeologists argue that the frieze depicts a scene from Greek mythology where Pandora was sacrificed to Athena to save the city of Athens from attack.

As patron god of Athens it is obvious why the great building was dedicated to Athena. The name Parthenon though does raise debate. Parthenon means of the virgin’, although it is not clear whether the virgin relates to the goddess, or to the four girls chosen to serve in the temple each year.
Athens became part of the Roman Empire, as the dominance of Greece in the Mediterranean reduced. The Parthenon remained intact for many centuries, although by the 5th century AD parts of the building had been looted. One of the Roman Emperors had images and sculptures removed to Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. During this period the building was also converted into a Christian church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. This conversion did mean an alteration to the building structure, as an apse was created and some of the internal columns were removed.

The Parthenon remained a church for many hundreds of years until the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in Athens. In 1456 the Parthenon was converted from a church into a mosque. This conversion also altered the appearance of the Parthenon as a minaret, a tower for the call to prayer, was added. The Ottomans though were fairly respectful to the existing structure, and as a result there was no mindless vandalism. Many reports are suggestive that the Parthenon was predominately intact right through until the 17th century.

This position though was to end in 1687. The Venetian Empire was at war with the Ottomans, and in 1687 the Venetian forces attacked Athens. The Ottomans fortified the Acropolis, and stored their armaments and gunpowder in the Parthenon. The Acropolis of course came under attack, and a Venetian mortar managed to ignite the gunpowder in the Parthenon. The resulting explosion partly destroyed the Parthenon, the roof collapse and many of the columns were decapitated. The Venetian forces also looted many of the internal structures. As a result the Parthenon became a shell of its former self.

The independent Greece managed to regain control of Athens in 1832. They were unable to do much with the remains of the once great temple. They removed the Ottoman buildings from the hill, removing the minaret from the Parthenon at the same time. The Parthenon though was a derelict wreck.

In the last quarter of the 20th century, the Greek government set about restoring the Parthenon, and its neighbouring buildings. The restoration is not designed to build the Parthenon back to its ancient image, but to mitigate against the damage caused since the mortar explosion of 1687. Since this date the structure has been further damaged by earthquakes as well as acid rain. This restoration project is not a short-term project and it is not cheap. Whilst funding has been received from the European Union, tourists to the Acropolis are expected to pay a hefty admission fee to view the temple, in order to help fund the ongoing work

Unfortunately you cannot talk about the Parthenon without raising the question of the Elgin Marbles. During the 18th century Athens was still in the hands of the Ottoman Empire, but western Europeans were frequenting it as part of the Grand Tour or for other tourist interests. The Earl of Elgin, the British Ambassador in Constantinople, received permission from the Sultan in 1801 to examine the Parthenon and the Acropolis. Elgin took this permission to mean that sculptures and friezes could be removed from the site. This he did with fervour.

As a result the Marbles arrived at the British Museum, whilst other sculptures turned up at the Louvre, the Copenhagen Museum, and many other European museums. Few were left in Athens, and even fewer on the Parthenon itself. The Greek government has been lobbying the British government to return the Elgin Marbles to Athens, for them to be displayed in a purpose built museum. So far though there has been no compromise, so the Marbles remain on permanent display in the British Museum. Whilst the display is not a complete representation, it does provide an insight into what the Parthenon may have looked like almost two and a half thousand years ago.

The Parthenon has always been commonly known as a temple to Athena. Architecturally speaking then the building is clearly a temple, especially as it contained numerous statues and images dedicated to the goddess. There is no physical evidence that the workings of a temple, the sacrifices and devotions, ever took place within its walls. Some archaeologists and historians now argue, that there is more evidence that the Parthenon only ever operated as a treasury.

No matter its original purpose the Parthenon is certainly one of the iconic symbols of Greece, and of the wider ancient European culture. It is a wonder of an ancient civilisation that should be observed first hand, failing that though take a trip to the British Museum for a feel for how the building may have looked in all its finery.

Copyright - First Published 10th March 2010