Hattusa - capital of the Hittite Empire

The archaeological site of Hattusa has been a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1986, and yet in Europe it is relatively unknown. Situated in modern day Turkey, Hattusa was once the capital of the Hittite Empire.

The Hittites

The Hittites were an ancient people, and are mentioned in the Old Testament.

From the 18th century BC onwards they engineered an Empire centred on Hattusa in north-central Anatolia. An aggressive race, the Hittites conquered much of the surrounding area, peaking in the 14th century BC. At that time the Empire controlled upper Mesopotamia, north-western Syria and Anatolia.

Traditionally there are three distinct periods to the Hittite Empire; the Old Hittite Kingdom (1750-1500BC); the Middle Hittite Kingdom (1500-1430BC); and the New Hittite Kingdom (1430-1180BC).

The Old Hittite Kingdom peaked during the 16th century BC, due mainly to their enhanced iron weaponry, and the Empire even sacked the city of Babylon. Initially the rulers Pithana, and his son Anitta, had their dynastic capitals at Kussara and Nesa respectively, but a century after the start of the Old Hittite Kingdom, Labarna II move the capital of the Empire to Hattusa.

The Lion Gate - Bernard Gagnon - CC-BY-SA-3.0

Hattusa

Situated near the modern-day village of Boazkale, Hattusa is 150km east of Ankara. The site is roughly 2km by 1km in area, and situated on a high rocky plateau.

The surrounding countryside provided the inhabitants of Hattusa with copious amounts of rich agricultural land, and pasture from the hills. As a result the people were provided with wheat, barley and lentils, as well as clothing made from sheep’s wool. Domesticated animals also provided meat, and although there was hunting of deer, this was mainly a pastime for the nobility of the city. Nearby woodland also provided the primary building material.

Archaeological evidence shows that there was a settlement at the site of Hattusa, from the 6000 BC. This settlement is supposedly some of the earliest representation of the indigenous Hatti people.
The real development of the site commenced in about 1900 BC, when merchants from Assyria created a trading colony. Evidence from excavations appears to indicate that the new city was burnt to the ground in about 1700BC. King Anitta from Kushar has been blamed for this act, and an inscribed curse has been found to support this assertion.

Within fifty years the burnt ruins had been reborn. Labarna II chose the site for his capital and private residence. At the same time a change of language occurred, as Hattic was replaced by Hittite. In conjunction with this Labarna changed his name to Hattusili I, meaning ‘the one from Hattusa’. Labarna and subsequent rulers built up Hattusa until it was worthy of the title of capital of the Hittite Empire.

Over time the city grew to 180 hectares, and there were distinct inner and outer sections. There have been estimates of a city population of 50,000 at Hattusa’s peak.

The inner section covered some 80 hectares, and contained the citadel with temples and administrative buildings.

South Gate of the Yerkapi - Bernard Gagnon - CC-BY-SA-3.0

The outer section of 100 hectares lay predominantly to the south of the inner city. In this section there were a further four temples, each set in there own courtyard. The majority of the area though was set aside for residential buildings.

Both sections of the city were surrounded by massive walls, the courses of which are still visible today. At some points the walls have been estimated to be twenty-six feet thick. There were also elaborate gateways set into the walls, and they were often decorated with images of soldiers, lions and sphinxes. Beyond the walls there are the remnants of a number of cemeteries, enclosing numerous cremation burials.

A series of Hittite kings used Hattusa as their capital, although on a number of occasions the capital moved because of invasion threat. The city though was eventually destroyed in about 1200 BC, and coincided with the collapse of the Hittite Empire. Civil war and an external threat from Grecian tribes weakened the Hittites and it eventually collapsed. All that remained were city states, some of which survived into the late 8th century BC. The site of Hattusa was eventually abandoned in about 800BC.

Rediscovering Hattusa

The site was rediscovered in 1874, though it wasn’t until 1893-94 that Ernest Chantre commenced the first excavations. Much of Hattusa was timber built therefore the most obvious remnants are the stone built temples and palaces. The majority of the excavations have been undertaken by German archaeologists in conjunction with their Turkish colleagues.

There have been some notable discoveries at the site. In the digs of 1906-1912 a large number of clay tablets were uncovered. Once they writing on the tablets were deciphered, it was discovered that they held details of the royal archives. The tablets provided details of official correspondence, legal codes, religious text and literature of the Hittite Empire. There has now been some 30,000 tablets or part tablets now uncovered, although one of the most important shows a peace treaty with Egypt, under the leadership of Rameses II, from about 1283 BC.

There have been almost continuous excavations on the site since the end of World War II. Some of the most recent work has been on reconstruction of the city walls, rather than restoration or further excavations.

Alongside Persepolis, this is another of the archaeological sites in the Middle East that is a must for all those interested in ancient history. Though there is perhaps less evidence readily visible than in many sites in Egypt, the images and decoration on the “Lions’ Gate” and “Royal Gate” are worth a look at.

Copyright - First Published 2nd March 2008

Biography of Madame Tussaud

The name of Madame Tussaud is a famous one known the world over. Most people have heard of the waxwork exhibitions that have her name attached to them, but there was a real woman after whom subsequent exhibitions were named.

Madame Marie Tussaud was born Marie Grosholtz on December 1, 1761, in Strasbourg, France. Marie’s father, Joseph Grosholtz, had been a soldier during the Seven Year War, but had died two months prior to Marie’s birth. After Marie’s birth, her mother, Anne Made, moved both of them to Berne, Switzerland, Marie’s mother obtaining a job as a housekeeper with Dr. Philippe Curtius. In some sources Curtius is named as Marie’s uncle, though this is probably due to friendship rather than blood ties. Curtius was a skilled physician, who used wax models he made to demonstrate anatomy. Curtius passed on his knowledge of wax modelling to Marie.

Madame Tussaud Aged 42 - John Theodore Tussaud (1921) - PD-life-70

In 1765, Curtius moved to Paris in order to set up a waxwork show, one of his first casts was of Louis XV’s mistress, Marie-Jeanne du Barry. Two years later Marie and her mother joined Curtius in Paris. It took until 1770 for Curtius to be in a position to host his first exhibition, but it immediately became a success attracting large audiences. By 1776, Curtius’ exhibition was such a success that it moved to the Palais Royal. During this period Curtius continued his tuition of Marie, and soon she was modelling her own waxworks. She met a number of famous individuals; her first wax figure was of Francois Voltaire in 1777, and was quickly followed by Benjamin Franklin and Jean Jacques Rousseau.

In addition to famous individuals, Curtius’ exhibition was also visited by the French Royal family. Curtius expanded his waxworks into a second location, the Caverne des Grands Voleurs, on Boulevard du Temple. Marie though had been picked as tutor for the artistic education of Elizabeth, King Louis XVI’s sister. Living at the Royal court at Versailles caused problems when the Revolution came. Arrested for allegedly having royalist sympathies, Marie was imprisoned in La Force prison alongside aristocrats and other sympathisers.

It is not clear why Marie was saved from the guillotine, her talent at making death masks may have been one, although her acquaintance with Robespierre and Napoleon may have helped. What ever the reason, Marie never faced the guillotine, although she was forced to make death masks from the victims of it, these included friends like Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. In prison she shared a cell with Josephine de Beauharais, the future Empress Josephine, and together the two friends were eventually released.

Madame Tussaud Aged 85 - John Theodore Tussaud (1921) - PD-life-70

Upon the death of Curtius in 1794, the whole waxwork collection was left to Marie. In the following year, Marie married an engineer, Francois Tussaud, and before 1800, Marie had given birth to two sons, Joseph and Francois. The thriving business of pre-revolution days though struggled in the relative deprivation of the New France. To improve their prospects, Marie made the decision to take her waxworks on tour.

In 1802, Marie along with Joseph traveled to London, with her collection of death masks and wax figures. Resumption in Revolutionary/Napoleonic War between Britain and France meant that Marie was stranded, separated from her husband and second son. Extending her tour, Marie took her waxworks on a tour of Britain and Ireland, a tour which would last 33 years. Francois joined Marie in Britain in 1821, following the deaths of Marie’s husband and mother.

The tour came to end in 1835, when Marie found a permanent base for Madame Tussaud’s on Baker Street. The permanent site was soon attracting a large audience, drawn to the Chamber of Horrors, where victims of the French Revolution and notable murderers and criminals were exhibited. Marie wrote her memoirs in 1838, as her collection continued to grow; the figures of Nelson and Sir Walter Scott were added.

Marie died in her sleep in London on 15th April, 1850. Madame Tussaud’s, though, continued to thrive; first through her sons and then grandsons. It was her grandsons who moved the exhibition to Marylebone Road in 1884, and since then other branches have been established in Amsterdam, Las Vegas, New York, Washington DC, Hong Kong and Shanghai. The modern Tussaud’s continues in the traditions of its founder, creating wax figures of the most notable individuals of every generation.

Copyright - First Published 27th February 2008

The History of Persepolis

The Middle East is home to some of the most amazing archaeological sites, and the site of Persepolis at Takht-e Jamshid in modern day Iran is no exception. One of the capitals of the ancient Persian empire, it was the seat of power for Darius I and the centre of one of history’s most powerful civilisations.

Persepolis is the Greek name for the ancient Persian city of Prsa, and in both languages has a meaning of The City of Persians. Darius I (522-486BC) is given the credit for founding the city in the late 6th Century, when he made it into the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire. There are suggestions, without corroborating archaeological evidence, that it had already been made in a seat of government under Cyrus the Great (559-530BC) and his son Cambyses (530-522 BC). In establishing a new capital, Darius I moved the centre of power of the Persian Empire some 43 kilometres downstream from the Pasargadae, the original capital of the Empire as established by Cyrus the Great.

The Tachara Palace, Persepolis - A.Davey - CC-BY-2.0

In choosing a new site Darius wanted to create a site worthy of the might of the Persian Empire and a place to show off the vast wealth it had accumulated from its subjugated nations. Development of the new capital began in about 518BC, and meant that Darius’ men had to first create an artificial stone terrace measuring 450m by 300m. There followed four phases of building, undertaken by sequential Persian leaders, until about 450BC when the majority of work had been completed. The majority of the work was ordered by Darius’ son, Xerxes, but all of the Persian leaders followed the same style of architecture. Wood was the primary building material, and it was only when the Lebanon cedars or Indian teak trees could not meet the required sizes, that the builders resorted to the use of grey limestone.

The buildings on the site are numerous and can be broadly divided into three types; military quarters, the treasury and the Kings’ buildings. The principle buildings include: the Apadana Palace; the Palace of Artaxerxes III; the Gate of Nations; the Great Stairway; the Hall of a Hundred Columns; the Hadish Palace of Xerxes; the Royal Stables and Chariot House; the Imperial Treasury; the Tripylon Hall and Tachara Palace.

Persepolis - DAVID HOLT - CC-BY-SA-2.0

Darius commenced the construction of Persepolis, and did so with greatest of all of the palaces, the Apadana Palace. Designed for official audiences, Persepolis was used in the main as a residence and ceremonial centre, the Palace was finished by Xerxes I, 30 years after work started. Built in the shape of a square, with each side 60m long, seventy-two columns held up a ceiling 20 metres high, it has been estimated that many thousands of people could have been accommodated. The palace is described as being the most beautiful of all of Persepolis’ buildings, and although there are only 13 columns left standing, there is much evidence to support this assumption. The columns were topped with animal sculptures, with the walls tiled and decorated with images of lions and flowers. The outside of the palace was equally as well decorated, with embossed pictures of the kings’ elite guards, the Immortals (as depicted in the film 300).

Other impressive buildings were also started by Darius, the Tripylon, a three-gated debating hall, and the Imperial Treasury. In many ways the Treasury is equally as impressive as the Apadana Palace, housing all of the plunder from conquered regions, as well as the annual tributes demanded of the subjugated people. The Treasury is known to have employed 1348 people, many of whom were just employed to shine the gold and silver.

Columns at Persepolis - Adam Jones - CC-BY-SA-2.0

Xerxes is the prime builder of Persepolis, finishing off Darius’ work, and commencing many of his own projects. Of his buildings the most noted is the Gate of All Nations’, a grand hall of 25 square metres, consisting of four columns, and was designed as a meeting place for the nations within the Persian Empire. The power of the Empire was on display to all observers with a pair of Lamassus, bulls with the heads of men, looking over the main entrance.

By about 450BC, the majority of Persepolis was completed, and there was no more complicated building activity, for about a century. Kings following on from Xerxes, built there own palaces, with columned halls, but there was nothing to challenge the beauty or glory of Darius and Xerxes. The city in all its glory though lasted for barely two hundred years.

The start of the end for Persepolis came with the arrival of Alexander the Great, in 330BC, which also signified the end to the Persian Empire. On arrival in Persia, Alexander sent the bulk of his force to the city, and quickly captured the treasury with all its wealth before it could be looted or rescued. During the occupation of the city by Alexander’s forces, two things happened. Firstly the treasures were removed and returned to Greece and Macedonia, according to Plutarch, this required the use of 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. Secondly the city was set alight, there is debate whether this was a deliberate act to ensure that the Persian’s could not make use of it or whether it was an act of vandalism by the Greek solders, as an act of revenge for the sacking of Athens some one hundred and fifty years previously. A gradual decline followed the burning of the city, whilst in 316BC Persepolis was still the capital of Persia, though a province of the Macedonian empire. One hundred years later though Persepolis was no longer a seat of government, as Istakhr, five kilometres north of Persepolis took over.

Situated in the mountainous region of south-west Iran, the dry climate has ensured that much of the archaeology has been preserved. Of course after the city was abandoned locals still knew of its existence and created their own stories about it, but it wasn’t until the early 17th century that the first westerners set eyes upon it again. The first of these was a Portuguese missionary, Antonio de Gouveia, in 1602, and for the next hundred there was a steady stream of diplomats who visited the site on their way to the Persian court. There was little archaeological activity though aside from some drawings undertaken by a Dutchman, Cornelis de Bruijn, in 1704. The first dig was undertaken by the Persian governor of the region in 1878, but the first archaeological research and excavation wasn’t undertaken until 1931. In this year Ernst Herzfeld and F Schmidt were commissioned by the Oriental Institute of Chicago University, to carry out the first scientific excavation. Herzfeld and Schmidt worked solidly for eight years on the site, before the Second World War brought the work to a halt. Ever since the end of the war the Iranian Archaeological Service has continued the excavations and has invited many archaeologists from overseas to assist.

Following the 20th Century archaeological work, UNESCO declared the citadel at Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979. Situated as it is in Iran, Persepolis has avoided much of the damage caused by the tourist trade, but the 2007 start of the construction of the Sivand Dam, has put different pressures on the site. The greatness of an Empire though, can be seen in the ruins of Persepolis.

Copyright - First Published 20th February 2008

Biography of Heinrich Schliemann

Johann Ludwig Heinrich Julius Schliemann, a name most often reduced to just Heinrich Schliemann, is not a well known name, and is often just a vague memory to most people. Most people know though of his greatest claim to fame, the discovery of the site of ancient Troy. In any description of the life of Schliemann it would be impossible to go ignore Troy, but a description of the discovery of Troy could and has filled any number of books, as such this biography does not dwell on those events.

The only issue I have in providing a biography about Schliemann that fact has become obscured by stories, stories that Schliemann often told about himself that cannot be verified. Some facts are known and can be verified, and Schliemann was born on the 6th January 1822, in the small village of Neu-Buckow, in the German county of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Schliemann’s father, Ernst, was a poor Protestant Minister, and by all accounts his early life was a hard one, a life that only got harder when his mother, Luise Therese Sophie Schliemann, died when he was only 9 years of age.

Heinrich Schliemann - Unknown - PD-life-70

Following the death of his mother, Schliemann was sent to live with his uncle, Frederich.
Schliemann claimed to have had no childhood education, but he was enrolled at the Neustrelitz Carolinum Gymnasium, a German grammar school, at the age of 11, and studied there for at least a year. Whilst of a scholarly nature, with particular strengths in the classics, Schliemann’s time at the grammar school was curtailed, as his father could no longer afford to pay the school fees.

Schliemann’s father was in fact accused of embezzling church funds to pay for his son’s education. Schliemann’s next period of education took place at a Realschule, a vocational school, where his scholarly studies took second place to work related studies. By 1836, at the age of 14, Schliemann again was forced to leave his place of education, when Schliemann’s father could not even afford the more modest fees of the Realschule. Whether his schooling introduced him to the ancient world or increased knowledge gained from his father is a matter of debate. Schliemann himself stated that he had received a copy of Ludwig Jerrer’s An Illustrated History of the World’ as a Christmas present in 1829, and as a result by the age of 8 knew that he would excavate Troy. Schliemann would also tell a story about his first love from this period of his life, a young girl from his village, Minna Meincke, who would help with his excavations in the local castle and churchyard.

Upon his forced departure from the Realschule, Schliemann found himself in need of money, so at the age of 14 he found employment as an apprentice to a grocer in Furstenberg. At an early age Schliemann developed a desire for wealth, although he soon realised that he would not achieve this as a grocer. He saw though employment as a means to an end, and every spare penny he earned he spent on his own education, he taught himself Dutch, English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish.

Even in work he still found a connection to the ancient world, as a local miller called Hermann Niederhoffer, would recite large extracts of Homer’s work in Greek. In order to understand the meaning of the oration, Schliemann taught himself ancient and modern Greek. After five years of work at the grocer’s, Schliemann departed, and at 19 years of age became a cabin boy on a ship bound for Venezuela from Hamburg. A shipwreck meant that his voyage was cut short but he quickly found further employment as a clerk in a Dutch merchant trading office. By 1844 Schliemann found himself employed by a large import and export business, and they soon found uses for his linguistic skills, ultimately sending him to St Petersburg in 1846, to act as an indigo trader. He proved to be a very successful trader, and he began to trade in a number of goods, including sugar, tea and coffee. As well as his own employers, Schliemann also worked for several other companies, and soon became moderately wealthy.

Following in the footsteps of one of his brothers, Schliemann decided to try and make his fortune in amongst the Californian Gold Rush. Thus in 1851 Schliemann arrived in Sacramento, and using his finances set up a banking house, to buy and resell gold that had been mined, Schliemann quickly made a small fortune. His time in California though was short lived, as he came under suspicion of using underhand business practices, and by August 1852 he was once again back in St Petersburg. Schliemann though did claim that during his brief spell in America he had acquired United States citizenship. With his fortune made Schliemann settled down to the life of a gentleman.

Sophia Schliemann - Unknown - PD-life-70

His lifestyle though soon brought him in contact by a number of eligible women, and he was quickly ensnared by Ekaterina Petrovna Lyshina, the niece of one of his friends. Married on 12th October 1852, Ekaterina Schliemann was the epitome of the pushy wife, and cajoled Schliemann to increase his fortune. The marriage though seemed to be without love, although Ekaterina did show some affection as Schliemann’s fortune increased in size. Using his knowledge of trading, Schliemann managed to corner the indigo market, turning a huge profit, before cornering the markets of saltpetre, brimstone and lead, material required by the Russian government for the Crimean War. Schliemann’s huge wealth briefly one over his wife and in 1855, they had their first child, Sergey, followed by two girls Natalia, in 1858, and Nadezhda in 1861. The level of wealth that Schliemann had amassed ensured that by the 1860′s Schliemann effectively retired from the business world and instead Schliemann would use his spare time to travel the world. Ekaterina, though failed to travel with him, and when he finally settled in Paris, Ekaterina could not be persuaded to bring herself and the children to France. 1868 saw Schliemann file for divorce and the end of his first marriage.

With money behind him Schliemann found himself in a position to actively pursue his interests in ancient Greece and Troy. In the same year as his divorce, Schliemann travelled to Greece in an attempt to find the Palace of Odysseus; this was a gamble as at this time the reality of the Trojan War was still a debated point. Schliemann quickly moved from Greece to Turkey, and took up the cause of Frank Calvert, a British archaeologist, who was championing the site at Hissarlik as the site of the ancient city of Troy. Schliemann took over Calvert’s excavations on the eastern side of the Hissarlik site, and started to liaise with the Turkish government about working the western half which they owned.

Schliemann, either through loneliness, or a need for companion to share his adventures, sought out a second wife. Writing to a friend of his, he stated his desire to find a beautiful, dark-haired, well-educated Greek woman with an interest in the work of Homer. Schliemann’s friend, the Archbishop of Athens, put forward Sophia Engastromenos, a distant relative of his for this role. In September 1869 Schliemann, then 47, married the 17 year old. Unlike his first marriage, this second one seemed a much happier union, Sophia helped extensively Schliemann’s digs, and bore two sons, Andromache (born 1871) and Agamemnon (born 1878).

Schliemann brought a great deal of enthusiasm with him, alongside his considerable fortune. As importantly though was a conviction in his work, but he also brought confusion, his story telling and possible salting of finds means that there is uncertainty as to what finds were real, or even when or where they were found. Schliemann and Calvert had a brief falling out about Schliemann’s archaeological methods, as Schliemann, in order to speed up excavation dug straight through newer archaeology to get to his target of the Trojan War period. His efforts appeared justified though when a discovery was made in 1873 of Priam’s Treasure’. Schliemann related a tale of how he and his wife personally excavated the find, and sought maximum publicity by having Sophia wear one of the finds in public. In doing so he antagonised the Turkish government, they were not happy with the way Schliemann was publicising his activities, but perhaps they more upset that they were not getting their half share of the discoveries. Calvert and Schliemann had long been undertaking a process of smuggling finds out of Turkey to be distributed around Greece, and as such Schliemann found his permission to dig revoked.

As persona non grata in Turkey, Schliemann moved his excavations to the island of Crete, and in 1876 made his second great discovery, unearthing the Mask of Agamemnon’. This followed discoveries in the previous year with the Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos. Both discoveries aroused huge amounts of public interest, although subsequent studies have cast doubt on their authenticity.

With the massive public interest generated by Schliemann, the Turkish government again gave permission to excavate at Hissarlik. Schliemann returned in 1878-1879, followed by further excavations in 1882-1883 and a fourth and final dig 1888-1890. Ironically it was in this last dig that Schliemann finally learnt about startigraphisation, by which time all evidence had been erased. Schliemann made a number of small finds, although nothing to match Priam’s Treasure’, and the Turkish government was now paying much more attention, taking two-thirds of all finds for display at the Museum of Constantinople.

Heinrich Schliemann's Grave - Portum - CC-BY-SA-3.0

Twenty years of archaeological work ended with his death on the 26th December 1890. Following a successful operation in Halle on his infected ears, doctors ordered Schliemann to rest and remain in the hospital. Schliemann though ignored this advice and subsequently travelled to Leipzig, Berlin and Paris. On his planned return to Athens for Christmas, complications as a result of the operation set in. Schliemann found himself too sick to make the last boat ride from Naples over to Greece, although he did manage to visit the ruins of Pompeii. On Christmas day he collapsed in the Piazza della Santa Carita and shortly afterwards died in his hotel room. Friends ensured that he was returned to Athens for burial, and after his funeral he was interred in his own mausoleum in a cemetery on an Athenian hill. The mausoleum was built Schliemann himself, and the frieze on the outside of the structure shows Schliemann undertaking his many excavations, with an inscription of “For the Hero, Schliemann” above the entrance.

Accusations have dented Schliemann’s reputation. Priam’s Treasure was allegedly found in archaeological levels predating Priam and back into the Early Bronze Age. The artefacts found are also unique and cannot be compared with any finds of an equivalent age. The same can be said of the Mask of Agamemnon, and there are further accusations that he employed a goldsmith to manufacture finds.

Schliemann is now often criticised for the way his excavations were undertaken, and dismissed as a treasure hunter by many archaeologists. He lied or misled throughout his life, in his business, personal and archaeological undertakings, manipulating details of his life and his achievements, Schliemann knew how to get the greatest publicity for his activities, extravagant reports ensured a take up by the popular press, and through his knowledge of language ensured global coverage. If you ignore his archaeological undertakings, which is difficult to do, then Schliemann should still be remembered as an impressive businessman, amassing a large fortune as he did, and also as a linguist.

By the end of his life, through a process of using the language of whichever country he was in, Schliemann was able to communicate in thirteen languages, his native German, Arabic, Dutch, English, French, Greek, Italian, Latin, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Swedish and Turkish. With his archaeological finds, be they real or fabricated, Schliemann’s name now has a place in history.

Copyright - First Published 17th February 2008

The Cinque Ports

The “Cinque Ports” of southeast England may well be an ancient grouping of ports, dating back a thousand or more years, yet the term is still used today.

The meaning, and relative importance, of the phrase may well have changed, from representing a high political position to tourist attraction, and yet the ports and towns involved, still take pride in the name.

The original inception of the term “Cinque Ports” came from a grouping of five ports, thus providing the name “Cinque”, on the Kent and Sussex coast. These five ports comprised the Kentish towns of New Romney, Hythe, Sandwich and Dover, and the Sussex town of Hastings.
There is a question about when the use of the term first occurred, with dates put forward differing by up to 100 years.

Map of the Cinque Ports - Clem Rutter, Rochester, Kent.- CC-BY-SA-3.0

The earliest date quoted, is for a date in the reign of Edward the Confessor, some time between 1003 and 1066, but there is no physical evidence, in the form of a Royal Charter, to support such dates.
As to why the grouping occurred is again a matter for conjecture. The more enticing reasoning suggests it was a defensive move, brought about by Edward the Confessor, to guard the southern coast from a Danish invasion.

An assumption is made that “ship service” was in place prior to 1066, meaning that each port was required to supply fifty-seven ships, each with a crew of twenty-one men and a boy, for fifteen days every year. These ships would be the unofficial navy of the nation, ready to do battle, and to transport troops as required.

A less romantic explanation for the creation of the group is on an economic level, as the ports regulated the annual herring-fair at Yarmouth, supplying the bailiffs to maintain law and order.
The name itself is suggestive of a time after the Norman invasion of 1066, as the French language took over in usage within the English legal system.

“The Doomsday Book” records the obligation of the five ports to supply ships as required by the King.

For undertaking the “ship service” the King granted a number of concessions and rights; each port was given exemption from external courts, giving them rights to run their own courts and therefore take the fines directly.

Additionally, the ports and inhabitants were given freedom from most taxes, as well as the right to recover goods from the sea. These rights were recorded as Royal Charters, the earliest in existence being from 1260, and the last was granted by Charles II in 1668.

The privileges granted in the Charters brought considerable wealth to the ports involved, and they become far more prosperous through the taxation levied locally. In later years, each port also gained the right to send two members to parliament.

Emblem of Hastings - James "Jpanzerj" Pope - Released into PD

The ports though did not find it easy to fulfil their duties, and so began looking to neighbouring towns and villages to help provide additional resources. The towns of Rye and Winchelsea were the first to assist and were given the title of Ancient Towns in recognition of their service.

A confederation began to be formed, as further towns and villages, also known as limbs, helped provide then men required of the Charters. Each limb would be associated with one of the original Cinque Ports or Ancient Towns. The size and importance of the limbs would result in the level of privileges that they received. The most important limbs, corporate members, were granted their own individual Charters, whilst smaller limbs, non-corporate members, took a share of their “Head Ports” privileges.

At its peak, there were 42 towns making up the confederation in the medieval period.

The importance of the Cinque Ports though could not last, the legal rights previously gained had been absorbed into the general administration of the Crown.

The creation of a permanent Royal Navy (1496) meant that there was no reliance on the Cinque Ports, and the last time ships from the ports went into any form of action was against the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Changes in the formation of the coastline also meant a decrease in the importance of most of the ports.

The Great Storm of 1287 was the start of the end for many of the ports; Sandwich found itself silted up, as did Hastings. In addition, New Romney and Rye, as ports, ceased to be of any importance as the River Rother changed course.

It is though important to remember that Dover, one of the original Cinque Ports, prospered and even 900 years later is the major port of South East England. In general, the prosperous towns and villages lost their relative importance and became no more important than their neighbours.

The last vestiges of importance disappeared in the 19th and 20th centuries, as local government reforms, and further acts of Parliament, removed the legal and administrative powers that the previous Charters had bestowed.

The term Cinque Ports is still in use, but all legal rights have now gone; what remains is a ceremonial position and a tourist draw.

In theory, the Cinque Ports Court of Admiralty still has authority over parts of the English Channel and North Sea, but the court has not been convened in a number of years.

Barons of the Cinque Ports also have the right to carry a canopy at the Royal coronation, and though one has not been carried since 1821, the Barons still have a place of prominence at the ceremony.

The position of “Lord Warden and Admiral of the Cinque Ports” is still in existence, though the role, which was one of the most powerful figures in England, is now purely ceremonial but still very prestigious, with past wardens including Winston Churchill, the Duke of Wellington and the Queen Mother

Despite the decline in importance, many towns in Kent and Sussex still pride themselves as being part of the confederation of the Cinque Ports. There are currently fourteen towns that group themselves in the confederation; the original five Cinque Ports and two Ancient Towns, classing themselves at Head Ports; with a further seven limbs; Deal, Ramsgate, Faversham, Folkestone, Margate, Lydd and Tenterden. It is interesting to note that with the change of the coastline that Sandwich is now situated 2 miles from the sea, and yet retains the title of Head Port.

The name Cinque Ports has passed from the medieval period through to the modern day. The true meaning has changed beyond all recognition, from a vital role in the defence of the country, to a role which is purely ceremonial. The ceremonies though do help to ensure that the past is not forgotten.

Copyright - First Published 14th February 2008

Battle of Teutoburg Forest

There are battles that are a turning point in a nation or people’s history; the Battle of Hastings turned England from Saxon to Norman, Gettysburg turned the American Civil War the way of the Union army, and Waterloo did much to shape modern Europe. The Battle of Teutoburg Forest is the Germanic version, though outside of Germany or the books of historians it is pretty much unknown.

Two thousand years ago the Roman Empire was in control of most of Western Europe. Gaul was subdued and the attention of the Emperor Augustus shifted to Germania. At the time, circa 16BC, the River Rhine was the dividing line between the Teutonic barbarians and the Roman territories.Just as with Gaul the area was controlled by local tribes, which in addition to fighting amongst themselves were not averse to crossing the Rhine to raid Roman possessions.

Part of the Teutoburg Forest - Are Kolberg - CC-BY-SA-3.0

Augustus sought to strengthen the border and to control the troublesome tribes, as such he sent Drusus, his adopted son, to take charge. In charge of five Roman Legions; Legions XVII, XVIII, XIX, V Alaudae and I Germania, Drusus spent 7 years successfully fighting his way towards the Elbe. Tribe after tribe came under Roman control; Usipetes, Tencteri; Chatti; Marcomanni; Sugambri; Cherusci and Suebi were all suppressed. By 6AD Tiberius, Drusus’ brother, had ensured that the majority of Germania was under control and paying allegiance to Rome.

In 7AD the Roman Governor Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed as administrator for Germania. Varus was a favoured distant relative by marriage of the Emperor Augustus, and had undertaken similar roles in Syria and Gaul. Both previous appointments had made Varus a wealthy man through the oppression and exploitation of the territories, something he was not going to stop just because he was in a new region of the Empire.

One of Varus’ most trusted advisors was Arminius from the Cherusci tribe. Arminius had been taken to Rome at the age of 19, and lived there from 1AD to 6AD, where he had retrieved an education in Roman warfare, and achieving Citizenship with the rank of Equestrian. On arrival Arminius saw the oppression of the Germanic tribes and secretly sought to bring together an alliance of the Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti and Bructeri people. Traditional enemies were united in outrage at the financial burdens put upon them by the Empire.

Much of what we know about the battle comes from the work of the Roman historian Dio Cassius. In 9AD reports fabricated by Arminius arrived with Varus telling of rebellion beyond the Rhine. Varus marched with three Legions (Legio XVII, XVIII & XIX), six cohorts of non-Roman auxiliary troops and three squadrons of cavalry, these latter forces lacked battlefield experience.

Troop Movements in Teutoburg Forest - Cristiano64 - CC-BY-SA-3.0

As the march continued into Cherusci territory, Arminius requested Varus send troops to protect the Cherusci villages from attack from the rebels, a request that was granted by Varus. This displays the false sense of security that Varus was under; in addition Varus did not follow normal military protocol as he marched his forces through unfamiliar territory. The Roman troops did not march in combat formation but were strung out in a long line integrated amongst the wagons and camp followers, including the women and children. Nor were advance reconnaissance parties sent out to look for danger. It was at this point that Arminius and his father Segemerus left the march on the pretext of raising a Germanic force to assist.

It was also at this point the Varus could have saved himself and his troops. Another Cherusci chief, Segestes, Arminius’ father-in-law, warned Varus of the revolt, and the plans of Arminius. Varus though dismissed the allegations as a continuation of a personal feud between Arminius and Segestes.

The weather also took a turn for the worse, a violent storm lashed down, causing the line of march to stretch even further. Dio estimates that the Roman forces stretched for between 15 and 20 kilometres, along the mountain paths of the Teutoburg Forest. It was at this point that Arminius commenced the Germanic attack and a battle that would last three days.

Arminius with his superior numbers of local tribesmen and lighter armoured troops attacked the line. Using his knowledge of Roman techniques Arminius, defended the Roman counterattacks and continued to pick off the spread out Roman forces. Despite heavy losses the Romans managed to set up a secure fortified night camp.

The next morning though failed to give the Romans any respite and in breaking out of their camp in a rush for open ground saw them once again decimated by the locals. Losses continued throughout the day as the Romans retreated, a night march saw the remaining Roman forces at the foot of Kalkriese Hill and exactly where Arminius wanted them to be.

Battle of Teutoburg Forest - after a painting by Friedrich Gunkel - PD-life-70

The Romans were trapped between a swamp and a hill, and the road ahead was trapped by a ditch and wall, from behind which the Germanic forces continued to pick off the Roman forces. A desperate attempt to storm the wall failed, and the Germanic forces stormed down upon the devastated Roman forces. The Roman cavalry fled the battlefield but were pursued by the Germanic cavalry and annihilated. Roman historians highlight the actions of Roman officers; Eggius died a hero’s death leading his doomed troops, Vala, the second-in-command, fled with the cavalry and was killed, whilst Ceionus undertook a shameful surrender. Fearing capture or slaughter, Varus committed suicide by falling on his own sword, as he perceived the utter destruction of his army.

With victory Arminius did not stop to celebrate victory but sent his forces across the country destroying the Roman forts and garrisons that existed east of the Rhine. One Roman fort held out for several weeks before the garrison, and some survivors of the battle at Teutoburg Forest, broke out and made for the Rhine. At the Rhine they found help with the two remaining Legions in Germania, under the command of Lucius Nonius Asprenas, Varus’ nephew. Asprenas decided to hold the river and stopped the sweep of the Germanic forces.

Estimates for the number of Roman’s killed in the three day battle peak at 25,000, and resulted in the permanent loss of the three Legions that had accompanied Varus. The Legion numbers were never used again after the defeat, and were confined to history. Alongside Varus, other senior Roman officers fell on their own swords. Tacitus wrote that whilst other officers were ransomed, many more were sacrificed in pagan rituals, whist ordinary soldiers were enslaved. The news of the defeat, when it reached Rome, appears to have sent the Emperor Augustus insane, with symptoms of a nervous breakdown.

Following the defeat at Teutoburg, a seven year war ensued, a war that confirmed the Rhine as the boundary between Rome and the Teutonic tribes for the next four hundred years.

In 14AD Tiberius had become Emperor and had dispatched his nephew Germanicus to re-conquer the lost territory. One third of all available Roman troops, some 70,000 men, and a naval fleet were put under the command of Germanicus. Initial success in battle, including the capture of Arminius’ wife Thusnelda, was quickly followed by successive defeats. By 16AD Tiberius decided to cease all operations against the German tribes, instead withdrawing the troops to the Rhine and entrenching them once again.

Whilst the Roman historian Tacitus depicts Germanicus as having achieved great victories, including one unsubstantiated against Arminius’ forces, the only notable successes were the retrieval of two of the lost standards. The loss of any army’s standard has always been perceived as the greatest dishonour and their retrieval helped to regain some of the Roman army’s loss of face. One of Germanicus’ officers, Lucius Stertinus recovered the Eagle of the XIX Legion in 15AD from the Bructeri. The following year after the Battle of the Weser River, the hiding place of the second standard was revealed by the leader of the Marsi to Germanicus. It took a further twenty five years for the final Eagle to be recovered from the Chauci.

Arminius only survived a further ten years after the death of Varus, and in 19AD following tribal rivalries, he was assassinated by members of his own family. Despite initial success in unifying Germanic tribes, other tribes, such as the Marcomanni, refused to join and remained neutral in the ensuing war. Arminius also failed to gain independence for Germania as a whole.

The final significant note in relation to the battle came in 50AD. A band of Chatti raided across the Rhine, they were chased by Roman forces and allies under Lucius Pomponius. A small battle ensued and following the defeat of the Chatti, soldiers from Varus’ legions were discovered and liberated from 40 years of slavery.

The defeat was one of the worst in Roman history. In sheer numbers it rates after the 50,000 to 70,000 killed by Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae in 216BC or the Battle of Arausio where 80,000 soldiers were killed by the Cimbri and Teutones. It says much for the superior strategy of Arminius, superior numbers and the false sense of security that Varus had, that the Roman losses amounted to so much in comparison to the Germanic ones. More importantly though than the pure numbers was the affect it had on the Empire as it brought an end to the glory period of expansion, and effectively ended any possible hope of conquering the whole of Germania.

Since the 18th Century the Battle of Teutoburg Forest has become a symbol of German nationalism and unification, with Arminius used as a symbol of freedom.

Copyright - First Published 5th December 2007